Watch Grey's Anatomy Online: Season 13 Episode 10

On Grey's Anatomy Season 13 Episode 10, the doctors tried to find a way to save a pregnant teenager. Watch the full episode online right here via TV Fanatic.

On Grey's Anatomy Season 13 Episode 10, Arizona, Bailey and Jo take on a challenging case at a women's correctional facility. Read on for a lot more!

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On Grey's Anatomy Season 13 Episode 9, Alex faced an uncertain future as he made a decision. Watch the full episode online now to get caught up!

On Grey's Anatomy Season 13 Episode 9, Alex finally learned Jo's secret. Is he now about to make the biggest mistake of his life? Read on to find out!

Grey's Anatomy debuted as a mid-season replacement for Boston Legal in 2005, and became a bona fide success after just nine episodes. The combination of medical drama, likable but flawed characters coming of age, and one hot doc known as McDreamy catapulted the show to smash hit status the following season.

Critically, Seasons Three and Four failed to live up to the lofty standards of the first two but the series remains one of the top ten highest rated on TV.

Grey's Anatomy is created by Shonda Rhimes. Its diverse and talented cast stars Ellen Pompeo, Patrick Dempsey, Sandra Oh, Chandra Wilson, Katherine Heigl, T.R. Knight, Justin Chambers, James Pickens, Jr., Brooke Smith, Eric Dane, Sara Ramirez and Chyler Leigh.

Former stars include Isaiah Washington (fired) and Kate Walsh (left for spin-off Private Practice).

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Development this abbreviated, important sectionprecedsdiscussion of adult anatomy. A more complete discussion is found in the dedicated section of neurovascular embryology.

The basicarrangementof the spinal system consists of ametameric grid of trasversely oriented segmental vessels, connected by various longitudinal channels. This simple bit of knowledge goes a long way in understanding spinal anatomy. Millions of years of speciation have taken place upon a basic building block of the organism the metameric segment. Just like the fly and the worm, the human body consists of metameric segments, with ecto-, meso-, and endodermal elements. Each vertebral body, its ribs, muscle, nerves, and dermatome, correspond to one level or segment. It is perhaps easiest to appreciate this concept at the thoracic level, where each rib, vertebral body, and other elements constitute the prototyical segment. In the early human embryo, the neural tube is first supplied by simple diffusion. When its limits are reached (200 micrometers perhaps), a primitive vascular system consisting of paired dorsal and ventral aortae (longitudinal vessels) and transversely oriented segmental arteries come into play to vascularize the developing tissue of the embryo.

As the tissue of spinal cord continues to enlarge, new longitudinal connections form between the transverse segmental arteries, most likely to facilitate distribution of blood within the vascular system. This pattern is seen throughout the body, but is somewhat easier to recognize in the vertebrospinal arterial system, where it gives rise to adult anterior spinal artery and numerous extradural longitudinal segmental connections which will be discussed below.

Gradual establishment of dominant longitudinal vessels leads to regression of most transverse segmental arteries, except at some levels where such vessels persist in supplying the longitudinal artery.

This process, in terms of the spinal cord, gives rise to the familiar adult appearanec of the anterior spinal artery and its remaining radiculomedullary feeders, while most segmental arteriespreviouslyconnected to it in early fetal life are limited to supply of the nerve root and adjacent tissues in the adult.

The same pattern of development takes place in the extra-axial, paravertebral space, where longitudinal connections between segmental arteries form a multitude of adult vessels, such as the vertebral, pre-vertebral, pre-transverse, deep cervical, lateral spinal, and other arteries, as will be illustrated below.

Adult Vertebrospinal Arterial Anatomy

The basic arterial vertebrospinal vascular unit consists of two segmental vessels, left and right, arising from the dorsal surface of the aorta. The vessel curves posterolaterally in front of the vertebral body, and sends small branches into its marrow. In front of the transverse process, the segmental artery bifurcates into a dorsal branch and an intrercostal branch. The intercostal segment supplies the rib and adjacent muscle and other tissues. The dorsal branch feeds the posterior elements and, via the neural foramen, sends branches to supply the local epidural and dural elements, as well as a radicular artery to nourish the nerve root. At some levels, the radicular artery is enlarged because, instead of supplying local neural elements, it maintained its embryonic access to the anterior spinal artery. At this level, the artery is called radiculomedullary because it also supplies a large segment of the spinal cord. Various other arrangements are seen, for example when radicular artery supplies portions of the dorsal spinal cord, a discontinuous network which is often misrepresented in venerable anatomical texts as a continuous system of two posterior spinal arteries. This is the basic arrangement of spinal supply.

The system varies in the cervical, upper thoracic, and sacral segments (i.e. exceptions are greater than the rule) but the basic principle of segmental dural and radicular vessels supplying neural tube elements is a very useful guide. Variation comes chiefly in form of segmental vessel origin whereas descending aorta serves this puprose for most thoracic and lumbar segments, the vertebral artery, subclavian branches (costocervical trunk for example), supreme intercostal artery, and median sacral artery (effectively a diminuitive continuation of the aorta below the iliac bifurcation) play this role at the appropriate segments. These vessels of origin are part of the gridline of longitudinal channels which form to connect embryonic segmental vessels. For example, the vertebral artery represents a confluence of discontinuous embryonic channels termed the longitudinal neural system into a single trunk. This, in part, explains multiple variations and duplications encountered in the vertebral territory.

Figure 1: Somatotopic organization of the vertebrospinal arterial vasculature, highlighting segmental vascular organization of the vertebrospinal axis and homologous longitudinal anastomoses along its entire length.

As you can see, numerous longitudinal vessels exist throughout the vertebrospinal axis, often with the same vessel going by several different names, for historical reasons. For example, see above for homology between the lateral spinal, pre-transverse, and deep cervical arteries. The segmental arrangement is particularly modified in the cervical region, where longitudinal vessels are dominant most obviously the vertebral arteries. It is important however to recognize the existence of segmental vessels connecting the three dominant cervical longitudinal arteries (ascending cervical, vertebral, and deep cervical) in terms of their anastomotic potential and its implications for both collateral revascularization and inadvertent embolization during interventional procedures.

The following diagrams provide a basic view of relevant arterial anatomy of the spinal elements, serving as a guide for interpretation of subsequent catheter angiography illustrations.

A aorta; B segmental artery; Ba intersegmental arterial anastomosis; C prevertebral anastomotic network; D direct vertebral body feeding arteries; E dorsal spinal artery; F intercostal/muscular artery; G pretransverse anastomotic network; H dorsal division of the dorsal spinal artery; I post-transverse anastomotic network; J muscular branches of the post-transverse anastomotic network; K ventral division of the dorsal spinal artery; Ka radicular artery; La ventral epidural arcade; Lb dorsal epidural arcade; M nerve root sleeve dural branch of the ventral division dorsal spinal artery; N dural branch of the ventral division dorsal spinal artery; O radiculopial artery; P radiculomedullary artery; Q anterior spinal artery; R mesh-like pial arterial network; S, T posterior spinal artery; U, V pial arterial network (a.k.a. vasocorona) anastomoses between anterior and posterior spinal arterial systems, W sulco-commissural artery, X rami perforantes of the peripheral (centripetal) system, Y central (centrifugal) system of sulcal arteries, originating from pial network of the cord; altogether, the pial network and rami perforantes (R+Y) are called the vasocorona or corona vasorum; Z rami cruciantes (a.k.a. crux vasculosa, a.k.a. rami anastomotici arcuati)

In the following examples, nomenclature using the above letters will be used for correlation.

Aorta and segmental vessels. Many spinal angiogramsstart with imaging the biggest vessel in the body. Some are surprised to discover that these segmental lumbar and intercostal arteries (red)are actually not that small (between 1 and 2 mm diameter typically) most can be easily engaged (and occluded) with a 5F catheter. The aortic injection gives a roadmap, may identify a particularly large fistula, and show which levels may have missing segmental arteries, thereby obviating a frustrating search. In this angiogram of a patient with a dural fistula, a congested spinal cord vein (light blue) can be seen in the venous phase (dark blue). Celiac trunk (orange) and renal arteries (yellow) are also labeled.

Typical Lumbar artery (segmental artery) injection. During spinal angiography, the segmental artery is selected with an appropriate 4F or 5F catheter (RDC, SAS). Injection rates are 1-2 cc/sec for as long as you think you need it, typically 2-4 seconds. Frame rates vary from 1-3 per second, and should not exceed 3 unless particularly necessary (to visualize microanatomy of a high flow fistula, for example). When dural or other fistula is suspected, multiple levels may need to be interrogated. One can easily go through 300 ml or more of contrast, so be aware. For metastatic disease, the search may be more focused. It is helpful to view the angiogram in both subtracted and native views to appreciate both fine vascular detail and bony landmarks.

The lumbar artery (purple, B)is relatively selectively injected, with trace opacification of hte contralateral left L3 lumbar artery due to proximity of the left and right orifices to each other. Since there is no rib, the artery does not have a prominent intercostal component. The arteries of the dorsal branch (red, H, J) supply the lamina and adjacent tissues, with anastomosis to the spinal process arterial arcade (yellow, I). You can see continuation of this arcade inferiorly, NOT to be mistaken for the anterior spinal artery or other spinal artery. The anterior spinal artery is straighter and has a characteristic radiculomedullary hairpin turn (see below). A large paravertebral anastomotic branch (green, G) is present, which opacifes ipsilateral L4 level dorsal branches (blue, H, J). No radiculomedullary artery is seen at this level.

Common lumbar trunk: Especially in the lower spine, single left and right lumbar artery origins are common. Absent levels are also common, usually supplied via paravertebral and prevertebral anasomoses.

Paravertebral anastomotic network typically, this is the dominant longitudinal anastomotic connection between adjacent segmental arteries.It is particularly well visualized in young, normotensive patients. Technical considerations are also important having the catheter well-wedged into the ostium of the segmental artery, as well as longer, higher volume injections (within reason, of course), are key to opacifying all kinds of collaterals.The paravertebral network is located along the lateral aspect of the vertebral body, adjacent to the sympathetic chain, for example. A well developedparavertebral network (blue, G) is present. The catheter (red) is engaged in a lumbar artery (brown, B) and via this network opacifies thelumbar atery of the level immediately above (purple) and immediately below (pink). Notice the spinous process arcade again (black, I). This network ensures virtual impunity for atherosclerotic or iatrogenic occlusion ofa proximal segmental artery. More care should be excersized at radiculomedullary artery levels.

Multiple longtitudinal anastomotic networks prevertebral, paravertebral, spinous process

In this patient, all three networks are demonstrated stereoscopy is very helpful to decide which is which. Also notice prevertebral transverse and retrocorporeal networks at same level.

C prevertebral anastomotic network; G paravertebral anastomotic network (can opacify adjacent levels with strong injection, or supply adjacent level in case of intercostal artery hypoplasia/aquired stenosis);I spinous process branch and associated anastomotic network connecting spinous processes; Blue precorporeal anastomotic network (not shown in diagram); blue retrocorporeal anastomotic network (pink color vessels in diagram, and see section below); light blue left L1 segmental artery; brown left T12 segmental artery; dark green right T12 segmental artery; pink radiculopial artery.

Another demonstration of multiple longitudinal anastomoses:

Lumbar segmental artery injection, demonstrating a well-developed post-transverse anastomotic network (I) visualized through the ventral division (H) of the segmental artery (B), with its muscular branches (J), as well as the pre-transverse anastomosis (G), both contributing to collateral visualization of the adjacent cranial segmental artery (B). F muscular artery, homolog of the intercostal artery.

Retrocorporeal arterial network

This characteristic diamond-shaped network behind the vertebral body (in the epidural space dorsal to the posterior vertebral body cortex, also known as anterior [with respect to the spinal cord] epidural space) marked with L on the diagrams above, constitutes the primary anastomotic connection between left and right segmental arteries of the same level. Like everything, else it is variable in prominence based on developmental and other considerations. A good injection can usually opacify parts of the network, but it becomes quite obvious once the diamond-shaped configuration corresponding to left and right superior and inferior contributors to the diamond are revealed. One way to improve visualization of the network is via an injection adjacent to a dissected segmental artery.

More retrocorporeal arcade images, demonstrated to great advantage in a young patient

T12 segmental artery injection of a young, normotensive slender patient, providing exquisite visualization of the various trans-segmental anastomoses, demonstrating a hexagon-shaped multilevel anterior epidural arcade (La), and prevertebral anastomoses (G). Notice developmental hypoplasia of the right T11 segmental artery (single white arrow, one level above the catheter), with a corresponding small intercostal artery caudal to its normal position (double white arrow). Both radiculomedullary (P) and radiculopial (O) arteries are present, the former demonstrating its characteristic midline course.

Another injection, which happens to preferentially opacify the retrocorporeal network

The median sacral artery continuation of the aorta, the median sacral artery usually comes off the carotid bifurcation, and can be most easily engaged via some kind of recurved catheter (It is the artery to the tail of countless species which happen to have one). As a homolog of the aorta, it gives origin to segmental vessels of the sacrum. Thus median sacral artery injection is in fact a sacral aortogram opacifying multiple segmental sacral branches. It is a must see artery when looking for a fistula. Here, the median sacral artery (red) originates from the left L4 branch (blue and yellow). Lumbar segmental vessels seen on the aortogram are shown in green.

Median Sacral Artery andLateral Sacral Arteries -- the lateral sacral arteries are longitudinal vessels wich are homologous to the paravertebral (pre-transverse) anastomoses in the thoracolumbar segments and to the vertebral artery in the cervical spine. They arise from proximal internal iliac arteries, and can be seen from either internal iliac or median sacral injections, as well-demonstrated below:

Inferior lumbar and sacral anatomy. A stereo pair, B native image, C legends: Selective catheterization of a common L5 segmental trunk (white arrow), also giving rise to the median sacral artery (normally arising from the region of aortoiliac bifurcation). The injection opacifies bilateral L5 and sacral segmental arteries (B), and the prevertebral anastomotic network (G), which is homologous with lateral sacral arteries. A stereo pair; B native image; C Labels.

Here is an injection of the lateral sacral artery (center) with adjacent images of bilateral internal iliac injections, demonstrating existence of extensive collateralization between the internal iliac and median sacral systems by opacifying the same arteries which are labeled with the same color arrows. The purple and red arrows point to the lateral spinal artery seen from both median sacral and internal iliac injections. Green arrows outline the remainder of the lateral sacral system, best seen from medial sacral in this case.

Median sacral artery (purple) giving rise to multiple sacral segmental arteries (red) and to a lumbar artery (yellow)

In this example, median sacral artery arises from a common L5 trunk.

Below the aortic bifurcation, segmental arteries can be visualized by injection of the median sacral artery (above) and internal iliac arteries, via the lateral sacral artery (see figure 1 above) The importance of iliac artery investigation cannot be overstated. The patient whose images are shown below underwent two spinal angiograms for investigation of suspected dural fistula, based on classic MRI appearance of cord congestion and serpiginous vessels in setting of progressive neurologic decline. Only on third time around was the left internal iliac artery interrogated, easily disclosing a dural fistula, supplied by a segmental artery (purple) and collateral probably dural artery (orange) with fistula point (red) and draining into a radicular vein (light blue) connected to the spinal venous network (above, not shown).

ANTERIOR SPINAL ARTERY (ASA): Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and conus regions.

Overview: the anterior spinal artery (Q) develops as a longitudinal vessels connecting transversely oriented segmental arteries, as discussed at length above. It is located on the ventral surface of the cord, adjacent to the ventral median fissure of the spinal cord. It varies in size, more or less based on the amount of gray matter at the given segment. As such, its size is substantially larger in the cervical and lumbar segments (might be500-750 micrometersin diameter), as compared with slender mid-thoracic size. As such, one end of the ASA has limited to no capacity to support the other should its dominant radiculomedullary supply fail. The arterial supply to the ASA consists of radiculomedullary arteries (P), which represent persistence of embyronic segmental connections between the aorta and the developing ASA. Their number varies, perhaps being 6-10 in the human. Some are quite small and, as such, below resolution of in vivo spinal angiography. The larger cervical and lumbar ASA segments are associated with larger radiculomedullary arteries to supply them the famous artery of lumbar enlargement (Adamkiewicz), and the less well known (radiculomedullary) artery of the cervical enlargement, known to some neurovacular anatomists as the artery of Lazorthes. The Lazorthes most commonly arises from lower cervical vertebral artery, though not infrequently from deep cervical or supreme intercostal vessels also. The Adamkiewicz comes off between T9 and T12 in 75% of cases,more commonlyon the left (which means, to me, that 1/4 of the time, its somewhere else). Not infrequently, there are two relatively smaller radiculomedullary arteries at the lower thoracic spine, instead of one big Adamkiewicz. At the bottom of the cord, the anterior spinal atery is typically connected to posterior spinal arteries (T) via what paired arteries (Z) which go by many names (such as rami cruciantes), forming a kind ofarterial basket (see above diagram, and below for angio images). Visualization of this basket is critical if you wish to call a spinal angiogram complete.

Cervical ASA:

Bilateral vertebral artery study in anterior spinal artery supply. Sometimes, in intracranial work, it becomes important to know the location of the anterior spinal artery with respect to the cervical spine. For example, vertebral artery dissection may be treated differently depending on whether it involves ASA origin. Vertebral artery sacrifice should not be undertaken until the location of the ASA has been considered. For example, closing a vert immediately distal to radiculomedullary ASA contribution, without other runoff branches, risks possibility of the vert stump thrombosing back and closing this ASA segment. Collaterals are often insufficient to maintain cord viability.

Just seeing one radiculomedullary ASA contributor may not be enough in some cases to truly define full anatomy one must opacify the entire ASA system. If a given radiculomedullary artery only shows the ASA inferior to its level, then one must keep looking for additional rostral sourses. For example, if one sees an ASA from C5 down in a case where ascending or deep cervical embolization is required, it would be advisable to find the source of superior cervical supply before concluding that ASA territory is safe. In this case, the upper cervical cord segment is supplied from the left C5/6 level, while the inferior cervical cord from the right C4/5 segment.

Left vertebral (top) and right vertebral (bottom) set of images from the same patient, demonstrating full length of cervical anterior cerebral artery supply from the vertebral system. The lower portion of the cervical ASA (red, Q) is fed via the left C5/6 radiculomedullary contributor (yellow, P), which also happens to supply the posterior spinal artery network (purple, S, T). The upper ASA segment is fed by the right C4/5 radiculomedullary artery (yellow, P) seen on the image below. The radicular portion is labeled in yellow. ASA=red; Posterior spinal arteries = purple

Another view of cervical radiculomedullary artery (of Lazorthes) arising from inferior vertebral (C6 segment). This kind of dominant supply is seen less frequently for the cervical spinal cord than it is for the thoracolumbar enlargement in case of the artery of Adamkiewicz.

A, B Frontal and C lateral stereo pair projection digital subtraction and native angiographic views of right vertebral artery injection, visualizing a dominant cervical radiculomedullary artery (P, artery of Lazores) and the anterior spinal artery (Q), anastomosing with its basilar homolog (long white arrowhead). Very faint posterior spinal artery (T) is best seen in stereo, as well as the lateral spinal artery (short white arrow).

Another view of the cervical cord, this one also displaying the posterior spinal (brown) axis and the pial vessels (yellow) which connect the anterior and posterior axes on the pial surface of the cord. Visualizaton of the pial network of the thoracolumbar cord is limited by the body habitus of the patient, which works against resolving small vessels even under conditions of perfect paralysis and apnea. The situation is much better in the cervical spine. Notice the discontiguous nature of the posterior spinal network, in contrast to the straight anterior spinal artery.

Although balanced supply to the cervical cord is more common, and most of the time it comes from the cervical vert, occasionally the typically small distal intracranial vertebral artery supply is dominant, as in this case. It is important to pay attention to this when flow diversion methods are used in the distal vertebral artery.

Lateral view of the same, in stereo

Deep Cervical origin of the radiculomedullary artery second most common after the vert. At our institution, all cases of posterior fossa subarachnoid hemorrhage with no intracranial cause REQUIRE indentification of the anterior spinal artery, as in ~10% of cases (in-house experience) the pathology turns out to be in the cervical spine.

Anterior spinal artery (Q) origin from deep cervical artery, P= radiculomedullary artery; notice collateral opacification of the vertebral artery (long white arrow) via the C2 segmental artery (short white arrow).

Another deep cervical origin any longitudinal system can give origin to the radiculomedullary artery in this case the radiculomedullar artery (orange) originates from the deep cervical branch (red). Notice also injection of supreme intercostal artery (pink, lower two images)with extensive deep servical artery anastomoses (yellow) through which the anterior spinal artery can be inadvertently embolized. The catheter, barely engaged in the supreme intercostal,is labeled in blue.

Same patient, contralateral side, demonstrating tumor blush (hemangiopericytoma) from the right subclavian injection supplied by costocervical (purple) and thyrocervical (orange) branches. An ipsilateral supreme interconstal (red) injection demonstrates extensive additional tumor, which is not apparent from the subclavian injection. The vert is labeled in light blue.

Supreme Intercostal Origin of Cervical Spinal Artery occasionally seen as well, and important to know. The supreme intercostal and upper thoracic arteries can be difficult to catheterize sometimes, especially in patients with capacious dilated atherosclerotic aortas. We use a 4F or 5F RDC (which can be too small for the upper thoracic spine); if that does not work, one can try an appropriately-sized Cobra, or perhaps a Simmons 1. Sometimes, hand-shaping an RDC to produce a bigger curve (so as to push against the contralateral aortic wall) is more helpful than another catheter. In this case, the supereme intercostal was visualized via the T4 segmenal injection through a prominent paraspinal anastomosis (I)

stereo pair, supreme intercostal arteyr origin ofthe anterior spinal artery (same legends as above), visualized via T4 injection through a prominent post-transverse anastomosis (I). Notice transient contrast reflux into a cervical radiculomedullary branch (P); another longitudinal anastomosis (white arrow) between adjacent T3, T4, and T5 segmental arteries

Supreme intercostal artery (redP origin from the vertebral artery another example of homology between various longitudinal anastomoses. Notice multiple intercostal arteries (yellow)

Stereo pairs, demonstrating posterior course of the supreme intercostal artery at the level of dorsal ribs

Thoracic region: The artery of thoracic enlargement (Adamkiewicz) usually comes of T9 throughT12 region. There is often a region of thoracic cord (mid-lower, depending on the Adamkiewitz origin, which is rather small in caliber, relative to the more well-developed cervical region vessel. A watershed of sorts (yellow) therefore exists which occasionally may correspond to cord infarction in states of hypotension. This double catheter injection (done for evaluation of cord infarction in the region of the basket, below the watershed) demonstrates the slender size of mid-to-lower thoracic ASA. Red=ASA; Purple=radiculomedullary arteries

The artery of Adamkiewicz. Typical appearance. Another patient, with stereo views of the radiculomedullary artery.The radiculomedullary artery (pink) often demonstrates a small segment of narrowing at the point where itpierces the dura(white arrow). The intradural segment (blue) opacifies the anterior spinal artery (red). RDC (catheter) is labeled in green.

Radiculomedullopial artery. By definition, the radiculomedullary artery is a radicular artery which supplies the ASA (red). A radiculopial artery is one which supplies the pial (posterior spinal) system (yellow). When one does both (orange), it is called radiculomedullopial. So there

Figure 9 A-D: A early arterial, B late arterial, C native, and D venous phase images. The artery of Adamkiewicz (Ka), originating at left L1 level, opacifies the anterior spinal artery (Q). The force of contrast injection transiently reverses flow in a smaller radiculomedullary contributor (Ka) sephalad of the Adamkiewicz. A faint radiculopial artery (O) from contralateral right L1 level is visualized through the anterior epidural arcade (La). Notice subtle caliber change where the radiculopial artery pierces the dura (short black arrow). D- venous phase image demonstrating expected visualization of spinal vein (e, either anterior or posterior), and the Great Radicular Vein (j), the venous homolog of the Adamkiewicz.

The main contributor to the anterior spinal axis (Adamkiewicz, ) arises from the left T11 level. The tumor can still be embolized from the right T8 level as long as the Adamkiewicz can adequately reconstitute the anterior spinal axis at the level supplied by the right T8 segment. This can be determined by Balloon Test Occlusion of the right T8 radiculomedullary artery while injecting the level of the Adamkiewicz. The decision is made on angiographic basis as the patient is asleep and, in my opinion, the exam is too unreliable in the time span of the BTO. If the patient passes BTO, the right T8 radiculomedullary artery is closed (very tightly) with coils, and the tumor can then be embolized (particles). So, below is an injection of the left T11 Adamkiewicz (pink) with balloon inflated in the right T8 ventral division (black). Notice amazing visualization of the anterior spinal axis (white), with contrast reflux into the radiculomedullary arteries at the right T8 level (light blue) and left T10 levels (dark blue). Also extremely well seen are long contiguous segments of the posterior spinal artery on the right and somewhat shorter but still quite extensive for the posterior spinal system segment on the left (purple arrows), The PSAs are opacified via the well-seen vasocorona (pial) networks (green), retrogradely visualizing radiculopial contributing vessels (orange). The left T10 level supplies both anterior and posterior spinal arteries, and therefore would be technically radiculomedullopial.

This kind of anatomy is best seen in stereo:

Variant high origin of thoracic ASA. The Adamkiewicz can occasionally (25% of the time) come off unusually high or low. In these cases, there is often variation in terms of posterior cerebral artery anatomy as well. In this patient, a large Left T5 level radiculomedullary artery supplies the ASA (white) of entire thoracic spine. Patients like these are at a somewhat higher risk of cord infarction, having little in the way of collateral radiculomedullary ASA supply. An unusually prominent posterior spinal artery (red) is present also.

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Spinal Arterial Anatomy | neuroangio.org

Acland's Video Atlas of Human Anatomy contains nearly 330 videos of real human anatomic specimens in their natural colors, including 5 new, groundbreaking videos of the inner ear. Dr. Robert Acland presents moving structuresmuscles, tendons, and jointsmaking the same movements that they make in life. The videos show complex structures step by stepfrom bone to surface anatomyto provide a foundation for understanding anatomical structure and function. The entire series was digitally re-mastered producing clearer, brighter, and more detailed videos than seen in previous versions.

Presents a 360-degree view of specimens accompanied by clear narration and labeled structures.

Ideal for preparation and review in human/gross anatomy courses and labs.

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The human body is the entire structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and viability of human body.

It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.

The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.

The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and by artists to assist them in their work.

The human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus.[1] These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body.

The adult male body is about 60% water for a total water content of some 42 litres. This is made up of about 19 litres of extracellular fluid including about 3.2 litres of blood plasma and about 8.4 litres of interstitial fluid, and about 23 litres of fluid inside cells.[2] The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside of cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside of cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within cells it is potassium and other phosphates.

The body contains trillions of cells, the fundamental unit of life.[4] At maturity, there are roughly 37.2 trillion cells in the body, an estimate arrived at by totalling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types.[5] The body also plays the role of host to trillions of cells which reside in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin.[citation needed] Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by extracellular fluids.

Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. DNA is used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Not all cells have DNA - some cells such as mature red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.

The body consists of many different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a specialised function.[7] The study of tissues is called histology and often occurs with a microscope. The body consists of four main types of tissues - lining cells (epithelia), connective tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue.

Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia) or internal cavities (endothelium) come in numerous shapes and forms - from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.

Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function,[9] sit within the body. Examples include the heart, lungs and liver. Many organs reside within cavities within the body. These cavities include the abdomen and pleura.

The circulatory system comprises the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells, and signalling molecules (i.e., hormones) from one part of the body to another. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the spleen and bone marrow.[10][11][12]

The digestive system consists of the mouth including the tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach, (gastrointestinal tract, small and large intestines, and rectum), as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption into the body.[13]

The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.[14]

The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others.[15]

The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.[16][17]

The lymphatic system extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The lymphatic system is similar to the circulatory system in terms of both its structure and its most basic function, to carry a body fluid.[18]

The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system can be split up into the muscular system and the skeletal system.[19]

The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment.[20]

The reproductive system consists of the gonads and the internal and external sex organs. The reproductive system produces gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their combination, and in the female a nurturing environment for the first 9 months of development of the infant.[21]

The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air.[22]

The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.[23]

Anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage, surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body. Nerves connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of anatomical variations such as sesamoid bones and accessory muscles.

Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body, which moves because of the beating of the heart. Venules and veins collect blood low in oxygen from tissues throughout the body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, which drain blood into the right side of the heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the lungs where it receives oxygen, and drains back into the left side of the heart. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest artery, the aorta, and then progressively smaller arteries and arterioles until it reaches tissue. Here blood passes from small arteries into capillaries, then small veins and the process begins again. Blood carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from one place in the body to another. Blood is filtered at the kidneys and liver.

The body consists of a number of different cavities, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and central nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The intestines, liver and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity

Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and gender. Body shape is influenced by the distribution of muscle and fat tissue.[24]

Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed. The human body consists of many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the body in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.[25]

Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).[25]

Health is a difficult state to define, but relates to the self-defined perception of an individual and includes physical, mental, social and cultural factors.[citation needed] The absence or deficit of health is illness which includes disease and injury. Diseases cause symptoms felt, seen or perceived by a person, and signs which may be visible on a medical examination. Illnesses may be from birth (congenital) or arise later in life (acquired). Acquired diseases may be contagious, caused or provoked by lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol use and diet, arise as the result of injury or trauma, or have a number of different mechanisms or provoking factors. As life expectancy increases, many forms of cancer are becoming more common. Cancer refers to the uncontrolled proliferation of one or more cell types and occurs more commonly in some tissue types than others. Some forms of cancer have strong or known risk factors, whereas others may arise spontaneously.

Health professionals learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for example by dissection of cadavers. Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school.[26][27][28]

Anatomy has served the visual arts since Ancient Greek times, when the 5th century BC sculptor Polykleitos wrote his Canon on the ideal proportions of the male nude.[29] In the Italian Renaissance, artists from Piero della Francesca (c. 14151492) onwards, including Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) and his collaborator Luca Pacioli (c. 14471517), learnt and wrote about the rules of art, including visual perspective and the proportions of the human body.[30]

In Ancient Greece, the Hippocratic Corpus described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles.[31] The 2nd century physician Galen of Pergamum compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages.[32] In the Renaissance, Andreas Vesalius (15141564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book De humani corporis fabrica.[33][34] Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the microscope and the study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs.[35] Modern anatomy uses techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging to study the body in unprecedented detail.[36]

The study of human physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, around 420 BC,[37] and with Aristotle (384322 BC) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between structure and function. Galen (c. 126199) was the first to use experiments to probe the body's functions.[38][39] The term physiology was introduced by the French physician Jean Fernel (14971558).[40] In the 17th century, William Harvey (15781657) described the circulatory system, pioneering the combination of close observation with careful experiment.[41] In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate with the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells.[40]Claude Bernard (18131878) created the concept of the milieu interieur (internal environment), which Walter Cannon (18711945) later said was regulated to a steady state in homeostasis.[37] In the 20th century, the physiologists Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew extended their studies to comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[42] Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.[43]

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Human body - Wikipedia

Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.[1] Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny,[2] as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated over immediate (embryology) and long (evolution) timescales. Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine.[3]

The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells.

The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.

Anatomy and physiology, which study (respectively) the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and they are often studied together.

Derived from the Greek anatemn "I cut up, cut open" from ana "up", and temn "I cut",[4] anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.[5]

The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy.[6]Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition).[2]

Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems.[2] Methods used include dissection, in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, in which a video camera-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels.[7][8][9][10]

The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy. However, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy.[5]

The kingdom Animalia or metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted a sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells.[11]

Unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids, cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic.[12] All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue.

Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization, as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed.[12]

Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal lamina, the upper layer of the basement membrane,[13] the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells.[14] There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin.[15] The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may just be a coat of glycoproteins.[12] In more advanced animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells.[16]

Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions.[17] In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, oesophagus, respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body.

Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia.[18] In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs.[19][20] The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.[21]

All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, (mostly in the embryonic stage), share the major chordate characteristics; a stiffening rod, the notochord; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube; pharyngeal arches; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is below it.[22] Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm, connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail.[23] The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood.[24]Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution.[25]

The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.[26] The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop.[27] The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.[26]

Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.[28]

The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.[28]

Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs, salamanders and caecilians. They are tetrapods, but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping, a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.[29] They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist.[30]

In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side.[31]

Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles, tuataras, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. They are tetrapods, but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system is designed for internal fertilization, with a copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid.[32]

Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.[33]

Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living species, Sphenodon punctatus. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead.[33]

Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye.[33]

Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey.[34]

Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.[35]

Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic, have a high metabolic rate, a light skeletal system and powerful muscles. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.[36]

The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes.[36]

Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel. The teeth are shed once (milk teeth) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.[37]

Mammals are amniotes, and most are viviparous, giving birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes, the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its development.[37]

Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), two arms and hands and two legs and feet.

Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, nurses, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope. [39]

Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems.[2] The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods.[40][41] A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology. [42]

Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.[42]

Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus, lobster and dragonfly. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia, food may be gathered by phagocytosis, energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies.[43]

Metazoans are multicellular organism, different groups of cells of which have separate functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms, sponges and some cephalopods. Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs, brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria.[44] Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians (polyps, sea anemones, jellyfish) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli, cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles.[45]

Marcello Malpighi, the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring.[46]

Arthropods comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species.[47]

Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton, made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen.[48] The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes (ocelli) and three sets of modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs, one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems.[49] There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.[50]

Spiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segmentsa cephalothorax and an abdomen. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ.

Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and the nervous system.

The city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the Ptolemy rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states.[52]

Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria.[52] Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research. They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections.[53] Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine.[54] Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophiluss knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease.[55] Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum [56] During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid.[57] During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons [58] and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses.[52] It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis.[59] Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle [60] Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves [61]

Great feats were made during the third century in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and liver.[61] He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.[61]

In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian medical text, described the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder, and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.[62]

The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the Hippocratic Corpus, an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors.[63]Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection. Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins. Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty.[64][65]

In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer and philosopher,[66] wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times.[67] He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals.[66] He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals.[68] Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.[69] His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century.[69]

Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid".[69]:120121 Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi, Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times.[70][71][72] Mondino's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.[69]

Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio.[69] He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.[69][73]

Andreas Vesalius (15141564) (Latinized from Andries van Wezel), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua, is considered the founder of modern human anatomy.[74] Originally from Brabant, Vesalius published the influential book De humani corporis fabrica ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543.[75] The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in allegorical poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist Jan van Calcar, a pupil of Titian.[76]

In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were given by the Company of Barbers and Surgeons in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the Royal College of Physicians.[77]

In the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for body snatching activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins.[78] A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers.[79] Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act of 1832,[80][81] while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes of Jefferson Medical College was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery".[82]

The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy, published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the Tay Whale.[83][84] From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools.[85] Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.[86]Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically.[87]

Before the era of modern medical procedures, the main means for studying the internal structure of the body were palpation and dissection. It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. The fields of cytology and histology developed from here in the late 19th century.[88] The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy.[88]

Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays can be passed through the body and used in medical radiography to view interior structures that have different degrees of opaqueness. Nowadays, modern techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging have enabled researchers and practitioners to examine organs, living or dead, in unprecedented detail. They are used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes and provide information on the internal structures and organs of the body to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations.[89]

Main article: Bibliography of anatomy

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Anatomy - Wikipedia

[Continued from above] . . . Anatomy of the Stomach, Gallbladder, and Pancreas

Stomach A hollow muscular organ about the size of 2 closed fists, the stomach is located inferior to the diaphragm and lateral to the liver on the left side of the abdominal cavity. The stomach forms part of the gastrointestinal tract between the esophagus and the duodenum (the first section of the small intestine).

The wall of the stomach contains several layers of epithelium, smooth muscle, nerves, and blood vessels. The innermost layer of the stomach is made of epithelium containing many invaginations known as gastric pits. The cells of the gastric pits produce gastric juice - an acidic mixture of mucus, enzymes and hydrochloric acid.

The hollow portion of the stomach serves as the storage vessel for food before it moves on to the intestines to be further digested and absorbed. At the inferior end of the stomach is a band of smooth muscle called the pyloric sphincter. The pyloric sphincter opens and closes to regulate the flow of food into the duodenum.

Gallbladder The gallbladder is a 3-inch long pear-shaped sac located on the posterior border of the liver. Connected to the bile ducts of the liver through the cystic duct, the gallbladder receives bile transported from the liver for storage on a regular basis to prepare for the digestion of future meals. During digestion of a meal, smooth muscles in the walls of the gallbladder contract to push bile into the bile ducts that lead to the duodenum. Once in the duodenum, bile helps with the digestion of fats.

Pancreas The pancreas is a 6-inch long heterocrine gland located inferior to the stomach and surrounded by the duodenum on its medial end. This organ extends laterally from the duodenum toward the left side of the abdominal cavity, where it tapers to a point.

The pancreas is considered a heterocrine gland because it has both endocrine and exocrine gland functions. Small masses of endocrine cells known as pancreatic islets make up around 1% of the pancreas and produce the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate glucose homeostasis in the blood stream. The other 99% of the pancreas contains exocrine cells that produce powerful enzymes that are excreted into the duodenum during digestion. These enzymes together with water and sodium bicarbonate secreted from the pancreas are known as pancreatic juice.

Digestion The stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas work together as a team to perform the majority of the digestion of food.

Storage The stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas all function together as storage organs of the digestive system. The stomach stores food that has been ingested and releases it in small masses to the duodenum. The release of small masses of food at a time improves the digestive efficiency of the intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas and prevents undigested food from making its way into feces.

As they are accessory organs of the digestive system, the gallbladder and pancreas have no food passing through them. They do, however, act as storage organs by storing the chemicals necessary for the chemical digestion of foods. The gallbladder stores bile produced by the liver so that there is a sufficient supply of bile on hand to digest fats at any given time. The pancreas stores the pancreatic juice produced by its own exocrine glands so that it is prepared to digest foods at all times.

Secretion The stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas all share the common function of secretion of substances from exocrine glands. The stomach contains 3 different exocrine cells inside of its gastric pits: mucous cells, parietal cells, and chief cells.

The mixture of mucus, hydrochloric acid, and pepsin is known as gastric juice. Gastric juice mixes with food to produce chyme, which the stomach releases into the duodenum for further digestion.

The gallbladder stores and secretes bile into the duodenum to aid in the digestion of chyme. A mixture of water, bile salts, cholesterol, and bilirubin, bile emulsifies large masses of fats into smaller masses. These smaller masses have a higher ratio of surface area to volume when compared to large masses, making it easier for them to be digested.

The pancreas stores and secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum to complete the chemical digestion of food that began in the mouth and stomach. Pancreatic juice contains a mixture of enzymes including amylases, proteases, lipases, and nucleases.

Hormones Several hormones are used to regulate the functions of the stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas. The hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin, and secretin are secreted by organs of the digestive system in response to the presence of food and change the function of the stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas. Our pancreas produces the hormones insulin and glucagon to affect the behavior of cells throughout the body.

Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor

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Stomach, Gallbladder and Pancreas | Interactive Anatomy Guide

What is basic anatomy?

Basic anatomy is one of the three major subdivisions of human anatomy (with Gross Anatomy and Histology). It is actually a code to understand the terminology and concepts of anatomy. Basic anatomy introduces the students to the definitions, terminology and basic theme of anatomy. Without knowing the very basic concepts, it is very difficult to understand the complex structural details of human body and that is why, basic anatomy must be learned completely before learning human anatomy. In the gross anatomy, you will study the general and special features of Humerus (arm bone) however, you first need to know what is a bone and what are its characteristics. This part of anatomical study is covered in Basic Anatomy and from this illustration, you can easily imagine the importance of it.

MANanatomy.com explains basic anatomy in a taxonomic way. The complete description is made in 9 sections, which are all listed below. All the necessary details are explained, however we have tried to keep things as brief as possible because you should only be getting basic knowledge in basic anatomy. When you complete the course of Basic anatomy at MANanatomy.com, you will find yourself at significant benefit in the process of learning the complete anatomy of human body. The explanation of basic anatomy is divided into the following sections;

All the links above explain only the basic anatomy of various systems of human body. To learn the detailed gross anatomy, visit the links below;

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Basic Anatomy

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Anatomy Arcade makes basic human anatomy come ALIVE through awesome free flash games, interactives and videos.

Anatomy Arcade is perfect for the novice teenager in the classroom, right through to students and professionals of health care looking for a fun way to revise.

With the help of Media Saints, we plan on making many more iPad apps. Poke-A-Muscle is next followed by a digestive game called Eat Me and eventually a very exciting, whole body system game called Machine Man!

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Anatomy Arcade

Male and female 3D gross human anatomy models

Each model includes 4,600+ structures. All body systems covered: nervous (brain, nerves, sensory organs), skeletal (ligaments and bursae), circulatory, muscular, digestive, urinary, lymphatic, endocrine, and reproductive. Additional microanatomy models detail structures of sensory organs (skin, ear, eye, tongue).

Each body system includes a series of quick-to-get-to preset views that showcase key organs and surrounding anatomy. Use them to study, teach, or learn. Rotate around a 2D model of the heart. Dissect away arteries that supply blood to the cerebrum. Zoom in and study the ducts of the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Edit any view and save to view again.

Read detailed definitions, Latin names, and descriptions of injuries, diseases, and pathologies. Listen to pronunciations. Test your knowledge with over 1,000 quiz questions.

"It's a beautiful tool to work with. It helps me to explain certain problems of the human body to students and patients."

"It makes it so much easier for my patients to see and understand where and why they experience pain. Just a wonderful app!"

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Note: Check your device type for specifics and additional costs. Additional content includes pins and pain that detail muscle attachments, 3D rotatable models that show common muscle movements, bony landmarks, and patient education physiology and pathology animations. Watch a demo: An emergency room doctor explains gallstones.

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Human Anatomy Atlas by Visible Body

America's Funniest Home Videos

Actor and Dancing with the Stars Season 19 Champion, Alfonso Ribeiro, is named new host of ABCs Americas Funniest Home Videos, as announced by Tom Bergeron during the season finale of DWTS.

After receiving hundreds of inquiries, stacks of video submissions and a very close audition race, one smile, one funny and sincere delivery became our standout favorite -- Alfonso Ribeiro, said Vin Di Bona, executive producer. We look forward to Alfonso leading AFV into the next generation of family friendly viewership.

ABCs longest-running primetime entertainment show, Americas Funniest Home Videos, returns for season 26 this fall with the same mission -- giving families something genuinely funny to enjoy together on Sunday nights. Along with a new host, the upcoming season will welcome an abundant supply of fresh clips to keep families laughing from coast to coast.

In its 25 seasons to date, Americas Funniest Home Videoshas given away over $14 million in prize money and evaluated more than a million video clips from home viewers. AFV has become an iconic part of American pop culture, as evidenced by its entry into the Smithsonians permanent entertainment collection. Today, AFV is seen in 193 territories around the world, spreading American humor and clumsiness across the globe! Vin Di Bona is Executive Producer.

Viewers wishing to submit home videos to Americas Funniest Home Videosshould visit AFV.comfor details.

Following the home invasion murder of Matt Skokie a war vet and an assault on his wife Gwen, four suspects are brought into custody: Tony Gutirrez, an impressionable teen who got in way over his head even under the watchful eye of his dedicated and hard-working father, Alonzo Gutirrez. Hector Tontz, a young man who has lived life on the fringes of society and has made bad decisions just to survive. Carter Nix and Aubry Taylor, two incredibly lost souls whose addiction to drugs and to one another has become destructive and paralyzing.

Though the suspects fit a profile, they and their situations are far more complicated than anyone would have initially believed... As is true for the victims themselves. As RussSkokieand Barb Hanlon divorced and estranged arrive to both bury their son Matt, and seek a measure of justice for his killing, they discover their son may have been far from an innocent bystander in his own murder.

Told from the points of view of all those involved, this new drama examines preconceptions on faith, family, gender, race, class and other aspects of our social experience with an approach and perspectives historically underserved in media.

American Crimestars Felicity Huffman as Barb Hanlon, Timothy Hutton as Russ Skokie, W. Earl Brown as Tom Carlin, Richard Cabral as Hector Tontz, Caitlin Gerard as Aubry Taylor, Benito Martinez as Alonzo Gutirrez, Penelope Ann Miller as Eve Carlin, Elvis Nolasco as Carter Nix, Johnny Ortiz as Tony Gutirrez and guest starring Regina King as Aliyah Shadeed.

American Crimeis created and executive produced by Oscar winner John Ridley (12 Years a Slave). Michael J. McDonald also serves as executive producer. American Crime is produced by ABC Studios.

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Bachelor Nation was heartbroken when fan-favorite Ben Higgins, the charming software salesman, was sent home by Kaitlyn Bristowe onThe Bachelorette. Ben saw a great life with Kaitlyn, only to have it disappear before him when he was left without a rose. It wasnt easy for Ben to open himself up to love onThe Bachelorettebecause hes been hurt in past relationships. However, now knowing he is capable of being in love and being loved, he is ready to put the heartbreak behind him as he searches for his one true love when he stars in the milestone 20thseason of ABCs hit romance reality series,The Bachelor, returning to ABC in January 2016.

The long awaited second season of last summers #1 new unscripted hit series, Bachelor in Paradisereturns to ABC.The cast of contestants is comprised of former fan favorites and controversial characters from the Bachelorfranchise are back looking for a second chance at love.

They all left The Bacheloror The Bachelorettewith broken hearts, but now theyll travel to a romantic paradise hoping to turn a potential summer fling into the real thing. Over the course of the season, well follow cast members as they explore new relationships and viewers at home will watch as they fall in love or go through renewed heartbreak.

If last season was any indication, Bachelor in Paradisewill feature shocking twists, surprises, unexpected guests and some of the most unlikely relationships in Bachelorhistory. In true Bachelorfashion, its sure to be an amazing journey.

Hosted by Chris Harrison, Bachelor in Paradiseis produced by Next Entertainment in association with Warner Horizon Television. Mike Fleiss, Martin Hilton and Alycia Rossiter are executive producers.

Bachelor in Paradise: After Paradise a live one-hour weekly after-show, will debut onMONDAY, AUGUST 3at 9:00 p.m., ET/PT, immediately following the two-night premiere of Bachelor in Paradise. The second season of last summers #1 new unscripted series, Bachelor in Paradise, kicks off onSUNDAY, AUGUST 2(8:0010:00 p.m., ET/PT) andMONDAY, AUGUST 3(8:009:00 p.m., ET/PT).

New episodes of Bachelor in Paradisewill continue to air on Sundays (8:0010:00 p.m., ET/PT) and Mondays (8:009:00 p.m., ET/PT), with Bachelor in Paradise:After Paradiseairing afterward on Mondays (9:0010:00 p.m. ET/PT.) The after-show episodes are hosted by Chris Harrison and co-host Jenny Mollen, and produced by Embassy Row, the company behind Watch What Happens Live and the Emmy-nominated Talking Dead.

Bachelor in Paradise:After Paradisewill feature host Harrison and co-host Mollen discussing and dissecting the most recent episodes of Bachelor in Paradise,alongside cast members and celebrity fans. Bachelor fans know Mollen from her prolific live tweeting during past seasons of The Bachelorand The Bachelorette, while Harrison is the man who has seen it all as the host of The Bachelor franchise since the first rose ceremony took place over 13 years ago. Together theyll present questions and comments from viewers, debut deleted scenes, outtakes and exclusive extra content, all the while allowing members of #BachelorNation to finally have their say.

Bachelor in Paradise:After Paradiseis executive produced by Mike Fleiss for Next Entertainment in association with Warner Horizon Television and Michael Davies, Jen Patton and Elan Gale for Embassy Row.

ABCs hit romantic reality series, The Bachelorette, will kick off its 11th season continuing the surprises of this seasons Bachelor with the biggest one of all: there will be two Bachelorettes: the charming, charismatic beauty, Britt, who captivated Chris Soules and the rest of Bachelor Nation with a memorable hug on that first night at the Bachelor mansion, and Kaitlyn, the gorgeous, fun-loving, warm-hearted, but irreverent firecracker who let down her guard only to have her heart crushed. Who will the men prefer? Eventually, only one woman will be left to hand out the final rose. The Bachelorette returns to ABC, premiering MONDAY, MAY 18 (9:00-11:00 p.m., ET), on the ABC Television Network.

It was the hug felt around the world. And no one will ever forget it. When stunning Britt Nilsson pulled up at the Bachelor Mansion and approached Chris, she was trembling with nervous anticipation. Moments later, she found herself in an embrace that captured both Chris and the countrys heart. Later that night, Chris confirmed the intensity of that embrace when he handed Britt the coveted first impression rose. And with that, a love affair began to blossom.

As Chriss journey evolved, no onecertainly none of the other girlscould deny the connection between Britt and the handsome farmer. Their kisses were passionate, their conversations intimate. However, what seemed like true love all came to a screeching halt just before hometown dates. Britts dream of finding a husband was shattered. She left in tears, returning to her hometown in Michigan to mend her heart with her loving family by her side.

Born just outside Detroit, Michigan, Britt eventually moved to Los Angeles to attend college at Azusa Pacific University. After school, she stayed in California, moving to Hollywood to pursue a career in modeling. After giving up modeling, Britt worked as a waitress, spreading her infectious personality while serving others. She also began volunteering at a local church, where you can often find her greeting congregants at the door.

Since she left the show, America just cant stop talking about Britt and she is back and determined to find the elusive, true love she has been looking for her entire life. She knows that this process worked once for her, and she cant wait to give it another go.

And then there is Kaitlyn Bristowe. Millions watched in quiet astonishment when Chris explained to a heartbroken Kaitlyn that she was not the woman with whom he would be spending the rest of his life. Her eyes brimming with tears, she stepped inside a waiting car to head back to her single life.

Kaitlyn is truly one of a kind. Shes beautiful, irreverent, and undeniably hilarious. In the past, however, her playful demeanor has often kept her from opening up and being vulnerable to love. It was her experience on the Bachelor that helped her finally tap into that part of her heart that had been dormant for so long. Even though she went home without the love she was so desperately looking for, Kaitlyn is thankful for her time with Chris. And nowmore than evershe is ready to let down those walls and find love again.

The daughter of a ballerina, Kaitlyns love of dance took hold at a very young age, and she hasnt stopped moving since, neither figuratively nor literally. Currently, she teaches spin classes. However, Kaitlyns ready to trade in the cycling shoes and the gym for a pair of sparkly high heels and a house near the Bachelor mansion. Viewers were thankful for the laughs and smiles she gave them along the way, as her electric personality and indelible sense of humor lit up the screen each week. Kaitlyn was a huge fan favorite from the beginning, and remains so to this day. She is one hundred percent certain that this is the way she is going to find her husband, and wants everyone to share this once-in-a-lifetime ride with her.

ABC has picked upBattleBots, a reimagined take of the killer robot combat sport from Whalerock Industries and the creators of the originalBattleBotsfranchise, Ed Roski and Greg Munson. The homeade robots will battle against each other, in a single elimination tournament style format, until there is one champion. The six episode series is anticipated to air this summer. MGM Television, which has a development deal with Whalerock Industries, will be distributing the program internationally.

The new series promises to wow viewers with next generation robotsbigger, faster and stronger than ever before. The show will have a greater emphasis on the design and build elements of each robot, the bot builder backstories, their intense pursuit of the championship and the spectacle of the event. Separate weight classes will be eliminated so that robots of all sizes will battle against each other. State of the Art Onboard Technology and Cameras will provide audiences with enhanced viewing and combat analytics. There will be cash prizes for winners in the Championship Rounds.

Executive Producers are Lloyd Braun, Chris Cowan, Ed Roski and Greg Munson.

Beyond the Tank is a three-week event from the producers of the Emmy-winning reality series,Shark Tank. The one-hour episodes ofBeyond the Tank, from Sony Pictures Television and United Artists Media Group, will feature the captivating and surprising outcomes after the Sharks strike a deal with the entrepreneurs onShark Tank. As the Sharks travel across America to mentor the entrepreneurs, assess the businesses and provide their industry expertise -- to make a profit -- audiences will realize the challenges and intrepid negotiations are never over.Watch as the Sharks roll up their sleeves to help their entrepreneurs make the tough decisions that hopefully lead to success, growth and profits.

The Sharks are: billionaire Mark Cuban, owner and chairman of AXS TV and outspoken owner of the 2011 NBA championship Dallas Mavericks; real estate mogul Barbara Corcoran; Queen of QVC Lori Greiner; technology innovator Robert Herjavec; fashion and branding expert Daymond John; and venture capitalist Kevin OLeary.

Audiences familiar with the compelling ups and downs of the negotiations will be further engaged in the drama that takes place after the entrepreneurs appearance onShark Tank. What lies in the aftermath of their investment? Did a promising deal turn sour or launch a million dollar profit margin?

Beyond the Tank will feature The Sharks -- tough, self-made, multi-millionaire and billionaire tycoons -- taking a look back at pastShark Tank pitches and deals to examine the highs and lows that can come from an appearance in the tank. The series will revisit entrepreneurs whose businesses were groundbreaking in terms of their technology, business model or branding who have taken their business to new heights with the help of the Sharks; entrepreneurs and their Shark investors who gambled on their businesses and then lost; businesses that multiple Sharks fought hard against each other to secure, and more. We will learn more about the entrepreneurs personal journeys as well as their struggles and triumphs as they persevere to pursue the American dream.

Mark Burnett, Clay Newbill and Leslie Garvin are the executive producers ofBeyond the Tank. Mark Burnett, Clay Newbill and Phil Gurin are the executive producers ofShark Tank, which is based on the JapaneseDragons Den format created by Nippon Television Network Corporation. The series is produced by United Artists Media Group in association with Sony Pictures Television.

Andre 'Dre' Johnson (Anthony Anderson) has a great job, a beautiful wife, Rainbow (Tracee Ellis Ross), four kids and a colonial home in the 'burbs. But has success brought too much assimilation for this black family? With a little help from his dad (Laurence Fishburne), Dre sets out to establish a sense of cultural identity for his family that honors their past while embracing the future.

black-ish stars Anthony Anderson as Dre, Tracee Ellis Ross as Rainbow, Yara Shahidi as Zoey, Marcus Scribner as Andre Jr.,Miles Brownas Jack, Marsai Martin as Diane and Laurence Fishburne as Pops.

Billy and Cody Lefever dream of a new life beyond their working class roots and move to "The Bakken" in North Dakota, booming after the biggest oil discovery in American history. Theyre soon pitted against a ruthless tycoon who forces them to bet big and put everything on the line, including their marriage.

Starring Don Johnson as Hap, Chace Crawford as Billy, Rebecca Rittenhouse as Cody, Delroy Lindo as Tip, Amber Valletta as Carla, Scott Michael Foster as Wick, and India De Beaufort as Jules.

"Blood & Oil" is written by Josh Pate and Rodes Fishburne. Executive producers are Tony Krantz, Josh Pate, Rodes Fishburne, Drew Comins, and Don Johnson; produced by ABC Signature.

Viewers will ride along with the proud men and women of the Boston Emergency Services, one of Americas most seasoned team of first responders: the first step in the chain of trauma care. It was this same group that answered the desperate calls of runners and spectators two years ago when the bombs went off at the Boston Marathon. Treating the injured and ferrying the wounded to hospitals, the Boston EMS earned the gratitude of a shell-shocked and grief-stricken city with their cool-headed professionalism. In Boston EMSviewers will meet some of the heroes of that terrible day as they answer new calls and respond to a daily dose of trauma and mayhem.

When viewers first met Richard Castle, a famous mystery novelist, he was creatively blocked. But when the NYPD questioned him in connection with a series of murders staged to imitate crime scenes from his books, Castle found inspiration in NYPD DetectiveKate Beckett.Once that initial case was solved, Castle and Beckett continued to investigate strange homicides in New York, combining Castles writer intuition and Becketts creative detective work. In the Season 7 finale, Castle revealed some of his backstory for becoming a mystery writer, while Beckett was faced with a choice about her future will she choose to pursue a new challenge or stay where she is?

Though they instantly clashed, sparks of another sort began to fly, leading both to danger and a hint of romance as Castle stepped in to help find the copycat killer. Once that initial case was solved, Castle and Beckett continued to investigate strange homicides in New York, combining Castle's writer intuition and Beckett's creative detective work. Then, after four seasons of will they or wont they, Castle and Beckett finally gave into their feelings for each other. The fun and conflict continue to escalate as the crime-solving dynamic duo navigate a whole new chapter in their relationship.

Season 1: Mystery writer Richard Castle abandons his successful Derrick Storm book series. Hes found a new muse in Detective Kate Beckett. Shes the inspiration for his character, Nikki Heat. As he helps the police solve New Yorks toughest murder mysteries, Castle learns that Becketts mother was killed when she was younger. He cant help but look into the case. Castle discovers that Becketts mom was not the victim of a random act of violence. She was targeted. For detailed recaps please visit Castles Season 1 Episode Guide.

Season 2: Castle enjoys success with his Nikki Heat novel, but also feels the backlash of looking into the murder of Becketts mom. Highlights of the season include a North Pole murder, a scary Vampire Weekend, a dalliance with a dominatrix and Castles daughter, Alexis, scoring an internship at the precinct. Castle is flustered when his partner dates the handsome Detective Demming and Beckett isnt thrilled to see Castle getting chummy with his ex-wife. For detailed recaps please visit Castles Season 2 Episode Guide.

Season 3: Things kick off with a bang when Castle is arrested for murder. Spoiler Alert: He didnt do it. In ensuing cases, Beckett goes up against her former training officer. She and Castle also encounter a vicious murderer known as 3XK, or the Triple Killer. Hollywoods version of Nikki Heat shows up at the precinct. Theres a dirty bomb set to go off somewhere in New York and theres a trip to L.A. on the set of Naked Heat. Finally, Captain Montgomery is gunned down by killers who then set their sights on Beckett. For detailed recaps please visit Castles Season 3 Episode Guide.

Season 4: Beckett fights for her life after being shot by a sniper. She recovers only to keep secret that she heard Castle say he loves her. Captain Victoria Iron Gates takes over the squad and Detective Kevin Ryans gun is used in a murder. The case has ties to the elusive Triple Killer. Castle is held hostage during a bank robbery and the team is seen in 1947 for the case of The Blue Butterfly. Theres a CIA showdown with rogue agents and a woman from Castles past. Beckett gets dangerously close to the truth of her moms murder just before she and Castle finally give in to their passion. For detailed recaps please visit Castles Season 4 Episode Guide.

Season 5: Castle and Beckett try to keep their new relationship a secret as they learn the man responsible for Johanna Becketts murder is the powerful Senator Bracken. When Alexis is kidnapped, Castle gets his daughter back with help from a man hes never really methis father. Detective Ryan gets the good news that a baby is on the way and Castle receives the greatest birthday gift of his life thanks to Becketts Rear Window-esque surprise in the 100th episode. The mystery man and his muse hit a crossroads when Beckett gets an incredible job offer in DC. Wanting more out of their relationship, Castle gets down on one knee to ask his partner to marry him. The long wait to hear Becketts response came in the Season 6 premiere. For detailed recaps please visit Castles Season 5 Episode Guide.

Season 6: Beckett accepts Castles proposal of marriage as well as a job at the Justice Department in DC. The latter doesnt pan out, so she heads back to the Big Apple. Castle struggles with his daughters decision to move in with her flakey boyfriend, Pi. Alexis eventually finds her way back home. Ryan becomes proud dad and Castle briefly reconnects with his father. Beckett is finally able to take down the evil Senator Bracken. The man behind her mothers murder will finally pay for his crimes. After Beckett dissolves a marriage she didnt realize she was in, the path is clear for her to finally marry Castle. The groom is a no show though. Beckett fears the worst when Castles car is found engulfed in flames. For detailed recaps, please visit Castle's Season 6 Episode Guide.

Season 7: Castle is finally found after missing his wedding to Beckett and disappearing for two months. With no memory of the lost time, Castle is forced to return to his normal life without any answers. It's not until a mysterious recurring dream and a trail of bodies lead Castle to Jenkins, the man responsible for his disappearance. Jenkins tells Castle he helped save lives, but will he ever know the whole truth? And after teaming up with a mobster on a murder case gets Castle banned from working with the NYPD, he pursues a new line of work: Private Investigator. Meanwhile, Beckett finds herself at a professional crossroads when, after passing the Captains exam, she learns that she's also being vetted for political office. Which path will she choose? For detailed recaps, please visit Castle's Season 7 Episode Guide.

Executive producers are Terence Paul Winter, Alexi Hawley, Rob Bowman, Rob Hanning and Armyan Bernstein. Castle is produced by ABC Studios.

View ABC.com's favorite Caskett (Castle and Beckett) moments

The Chew celebrates and explores life through food, with a group of dynamic, engaging, fun, relatable co-hosts who serve up everything to do with food -- from cooking and home entertaining to food trends, restaurants, holidays and more -- all aimed at making life better, fuller and more fun. It is broadcast live, weekdays, from New York City.

The Chew stars Mario Batali, Michael Symon, Carla Hall, Clinton Kelly and Daphne Oz.

Mario Batali is co-owner of 17 restaurants across the country, including his flagship New York City restaurant Babbo. He has hosted a variety of television shows for Food Network, including Ciao America and Molto Mario. Batali is also the author of eight cookbooks, including the James Beard Award Winning, Molto Italiano: 327 Simple Italian Recipes.

Michael Symon is a star of the Food Network series Iron Chef America. Symon is the owner of five restaurants, including the critically-acclaimed Lola and Lolita, cornerstones of his hometowns dining scene in Cleveland, OH. In 1998, Symon was named Best New Chef by Food & Wine Magazine. He is known for his infectious laugh and is an avid tattoo enthusiast who has a Got Pork tattoo emblazoned on his chest. Symon enjoys spending time with his wife, Liz, and their two dogs, Ruby and Ozzy.

Carla Hall is best known as a competitor on Bravos Top Chef, where she won over audiences with her fun catch phrase "Hootie Hoo" and philosophy to always cook with love. She is the owner of Alchemy by Carla Hall, an artisan cookie company that specializes in creating sweet and savory "petite bites of love." Hall is a true believer that, "If youre not in a good mood, the only thing you should make is a reservation."

Clinton Kelly is a familiar face to fashionistas around the country as style host of the TLC series What Not to Wear. He has also appeared in several specials for TLC, including: The Miss America Pageant; Fashioning a Home with Clinton Kelly; and Mind Your Manners and Redo My Spouse. Kelly is also the author of Freakin Fabulous: How to Dress, Speak, Behave, Eat, Drink, Entertain, Decorate and Generally Be Better Than Everyone Else and Oh No She Didnt: The Top 100 Style Mistakes Women Make and How to Avoid Them. In December 2010, Kelly launched the style app Stylerx for the iPhone and web.

Daphne Oz is The Chew's fresh face of healthy living and resident practical tipster. In 2006, she wrote her national bestseller The Dorm Room Diet, sharing the healthy lifestyle plan she developed at school that helped her permanently shed thirty pounds. Oz also helped to found HealthCorps, a non-profit organization that equips teenagers with educational information in the areas of nutrition, exercise and stress management. She is a newlywed who will celebrate her first wedding anniversary later this month.

Produced by Gordon Elliott's Chew Productions for the ABC Television Network, The Chew is an innovative and groundbreaking new lifestyle series.

Get ready for a brand new season of salsas, sambas and spray-tans as Dancing with the Stars returns MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14 8|7c with an all-new cast vying for the coveted Mirrorball Trophy!

Tom Bergeron and Erin Andrews will be back to guide us through this exciting new season along with your favorite judges. Of course, its still all about the fans who ultimately help determine which teams make the cut each week with their votes during the biggest dance party on the planet!

The stars, the drama, the glamour and the glitter are back on ABC! Dancing with the Stars returns on MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14 8|7c with a sensational two-hour season premiere. On TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22 9|8c, brace yourself for the first elimination of the season with the Dancing with the Stars: Results Show.

Doctor turned actor/comedianKen Jeong(Community, The Hangover), plays Dr. Ken, a brilliant physician with no bedside manner. He is always trying to be a good doctor, as well as a good husband and dad to his two kids. However, these good intentions have a way of driving everyone crazy at both work and at home. Luckily, his therapist wife Allison is just the right partner to keep things sane.

Dr. Kenstars Ken Jeong as Dr. Ken, Suzy Nakamura as Allison, Tisha Campbell-Martin as Damona, Dave Foley as Pat, Jonathan Slavin as Clark, Albert Tsai as Dave and Krista Marie Yu as Molly. ABC's new comedyDr. Kenwas written by Jared Stern, Ken Jeong, and Mike OConnell. Executive Producers are Jared Stern, Ken Jeong, John Davis, John Fox and Mike Sikowitz, with Mike OConnell as co-executive producer.Dr. Kenis produced by Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios.

Its the '90s and 12 year old, hip-hop loving Eddie (Hudson Yang) just moved to suburban Orlando from DCs Chinatown with his parents (Randall Park and Constance Wu). Its culture shock for his immigrant family in this comedy about pursuing the American Dream.Fresh Off the Boatis based on Chef Eddie Huang's memoirFresh Off the Boat.

Fresh Off the Boatstars Randall Park as Louis, Constance Wu as Jessica, Hudson Yang as Eddie, Forrest Wheeler as Emery and Ian Chen as Evan.

Fresh Off the Boatis executive produced and written by Nahnatchka Khan and executive produced by Jake Kasdan for 20th Century Fox Television.

Screenwriter/executive producer Dan Fogelman (Crazy, Stupid, Love; Tangled; Cars) reunites with Broadway and Hollywood award-winning musical team composer Alan Menken (The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast) and lyricist Glenn Slater (The Little Mermaid, Tangled) for the return of last seasons breakout musical comedy extravaganza,Galavant. Having discovered the dark side of Madalena, our dashing heros adventures continue as he embarks on an unlikely bromance with King Richard and fights to rekindle the romance with his true love Isabella.

Galavantstars Joshua Sasse as Galavant, Timothy Omundson as King Richard, Vinnie Jones as Gareth, Mallory Jansen as Madalena, Karen David as Isabella and Luke Youngblood as Sid.

Dan Fogelman, Alan Menken, Glenn Slater, Chris Koch, Kat Likkel and John Hoberg serve as executive producers. Abbey C Studios Ltd. Produces Galavant for ABC Studios.

General Hospital, which celebrated its golden anniversary on April 1, 2013, continues its tradition of passion, intrigue and adventure that takes place in the fictional town of Port Charles in upstate New York. The glamour and excitement of those who have come to find their destinies in this familiar seaport town intertwine with the lives, loves and fortunes of beloved, well-known faces. As always, love, danger and mind blowing plot twists continue to abound on General Hospitalwith contemporary storylines and unforgettable characters.

At 50-plus historic years and growing, General Hospitalhas received the prestigious Emmy Award for Outstanding Daytime Drama a record eleven times. The medical drama is the longest running American soap opera currently in production and the longest running scripted drama on television currently in production. Filmed in Hollywood, CA, the show will air its 13,000th episode on February 24, 2014.

The producing and writing teams of General Hospitalconsistently deliver thrilling and action-packed storylines featuring romantic moments, lost loves rekindled, dysfunctional family dynamics, suspenseful weddings, twisted villains, adventurous heroes and so much more. As a result, the shows ratings have rocketed this season, making General Hospitalthe #1 daytime network program with women 18-49. Furthermore, GH posts the biggest yearly gains out of all the daytime network dramas with women 25-54.

The show that TV Guide hailed as the "All-Time Best Daytime Soap" in their 40th Anniversary special edition, General Hospitalhas also won a number of awards from the Directors Guild and the Writers Guild for Outstanding Achievement. General Hospitalis known for its high profile celebrity guest stars and some of the more iconic names include Milton Berle, Sammy Davis, Jr., and Elizabeth Taylor.

For many years, General Hospitalhas worked alongside and been praised by numerous national organizations for elevating public awareness of important health and social issues. Some of those real-life issues featured in conjunction with specific storylines include awareness of sexual responsibility, HIV/AIDS-related storylines, tolerance and understanding for gay, lesbian and transgender people, bipolar disorder, accurate portrayals of tobacco, drug and alcohol addiction, breast cancer awareness, sexual child abuse and organ donation.

Several past and current cast members have received stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their work on the show. Notably, in 1993, both the late Anna Lee (Lila Quartermaine) and original cast member John Beradino (Dr. Steve Hardy) received their stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

General Hospitalwas created by husband-and-wife soap writers Frank and Doris Hursley and premiered on April 1, 1963. In 1978, Gloria Monty was brought in as executive producer and is credited with the creation of the first supercouple, characters Luke Spencer and Laura Webber. Their 1981 wedding brought in 30 million viewers and remains the highest-rated hour in American soap opera history.

The executive producer of General Hospital is Frank Valentini, and Ron Carlivati is the head writer. General Hospitalairs weekdays at 2e|1c|pon the ABC Television Network.

Frank Valentini, Executive Producer

Frank Valentini became executive producer of ABC'sGeneral Hospital in January 2012. Previously, he was executive producer of ABC's multi-award winning daytime drama, One Life to Live. Valentini was honored with an Emmy Award for producing in 2002 and two consecutive wins in 2008 and 2009 as a part of the One Life to Livedirecting team, and in 2011 for the ABC daytime What If webisodes. In addition, he was nominated for a DGA Award in 2002.

Prior to being named executive producer at One Life to Live, Valentini held various positions on the show, including associate director, stage manager and coordinating producer. In addition to his duties at OLTL, he served as a guest director on the ABC Daytime drama All My Children. In 2008, he added commercial director to his credits with the Endless Drama broadcast and web campaign for ESPN. He directed ABC Daytime's innovative series of What If webisodes that began airing on abc.com and soapnet.com on July 12, 2010. The 10-part series features well known characters from All My Children,One Life to Live and General Hospitalanswering the questions, What would happen if two characters from different soaps ran into each other? What would they say?

Valentini has a vast knowledge of contemporary music, which he acquired when he served as a radio station music director, talent scout for Steam Records and freelance writer for VH-1. He served for two years on the board of the New Group Theater Company. He received his degree in film & television production from the University of Buffalo. He has traveled to over 75 countries, and in 2002 he became a published photographer.

Before there were parenting blogs, trophies for showing up and peanut allergies, there was a simpler time called the 80s. For geekyand movie obsessedyoungest child Adam (Sean Giambrone), these were hiswonder years, and he faced them armed with a video camera to capture all the crazy. The Goldbergs are a loving family like any other -- just with a lot more yelling. Mom Beverly (Wendi McClendon-Covey) is a classic "smother," an overbearing, overprotective matriarch wholoves her delicious kids, but stillrules this brood with 100% authority and zero sense of boundaries. Dad Murray (Jeff Garlin) is gruff and sometimes oblivious, parenting with half his attention span but all his heart. Sister Erica (Hayley Orrantia) is popular and terrifying, doing her best to cover up that she's the smartest of the clan.Barry (Troy Gentile) isa passionate dreamer, who maybe dreams a little too big and who always gets the short end of the stick. Adam(Sean Giambrone)is the youngest, a camera-wielding future director whos navigating first love, and growing up with his family. Rounding out the family is beloved grandfather Al "Pops" Solomon (George Segal), the wild man of the clan, a shameless Don Juan whos learning as much from his family as he teaches them.

The Goldbergsstars Wendi McLendon-Covey (Bridesmaids) as Beverly Goldberg, Patton Oswalt (Ratatouille) as adult Adam Goldberg, Sean Giambrone as Adam Goldberg, Troy Gentile (Good Luck Chuck) as Barry Goldberg, Hayley Orrantia (The X Factor) as Erica Goldberg, with George Segal (Just Shoot Me) as Pops Solomon and Jeff Garlin (Curb Your Enthusiasm) as Murray Goldberg.

The Goldbergsis written and executive-produced by Adam F. Goldberg (Breaking In,Fanboys)and also executive-produced by Doug Robinson, Seth Gordon, Alex Barnow and Marc Firek.The Goldbergsis from Adam Sandlers production company, HappyMadison, and is produced by Sony Pictures Television. It is broadcast in720 Progressive (720P), ABCs selected HDTV format with a 5.1 channel surround sound.

Grey's Anatomy is the recipient of the 2007 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series - Drama, and multiple Emmy nominations, including two for Outstanding Drama Series.

The doctors ofGrey Sloan Memorial Hospital deal with life-or-death consequences on a daily basis-it's in one another that they find comfort, friendship and, at times, more than friendship. Together they're discovering that neither medicine nor relationships can be defined in black and white. Real life only comes in shades of grey.

Season 1: Just before Meredith Grey begins her surgical residency at Seattle Grace, she has a one night stand with her new boss, Dr. Derek Shepherd. Just call this brilliant neurosurgeon "McDreamy." Mer's future "person," Cristina Yang, strikes up a relationship with cardiothoracic ace Preston Burke. Other interns include ex-model Izzie Stevens and her insecure BFF George O'Malley, who is branded "007" by the obnoxious Alex Karev because he has a license to kill. Dr. Miranda Bailey keeps the interns in line while Chief Richard Webber keeps the hospital running. For detailed recaps please visit Grey's Anatomy's Season 1 Episode Guide.

Season 2: Derek's wife, Addison, makes things awkward for Meredith, who must come clean that her mom is the brilliant surgeon/Alzheimer's victim, Ellis Grey. Izzie hooks up with Alex before falling for heart transplant patient Denny Duquette. George engages in a disastrous pairing with Meredith, who later hooks up with a hot veterinarian named Finn. Burke is shot. Surgery leaves him with tremors in his hand. Izzie cuts Denny's LVAD wire to move him up on the heart transplant list, but he dies in her arms. Izzie quits the program and Meredith must choose between Derek and Finn. For detailed recaps please visit Grey's Anatomy's Season 2 Episode Guide.

Season 3: Dr. Mark Sloan makes things McSteamy at Seattle Grace. Orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres strikes up a relationship with George. Cristina covers for Burke, who hides his hand tremors. There's a race to win the Chief's job once Richard announces retirement plans. Burke leaves Cristina on their wedding day. George loses his dad, proposes to Callie and hooks up with Izzie. Meredith has a near-death experience and must deal with the actual death of her estranged dad's new wife. Derek tells Meredith she's the love of his life and she, in turn, lets him know that it's over. So over. For detailed recaps please visit Grey's Anatomy's Season 3 Episode Guide.

Season 4: George repeats his intern year. Joining him is Little Grey, as in Meredith's half-sister, Lexie. The "really old guy" comes out of his coma. George and Izzie have bad sex. Cristina butts heads with new cardio doc Erica Hahn, who becomes intimate with Callie. Derek and Meredith have an uphill climb with their clinical trial, but they eventually "save a life." The two of them meet at Derek's patch of land. Meredith sets up a dazzling array of candles outlining where their house will be. For detailed recaps please visit Grey's Anatomy's Season 4 Episode Guide.

Season 5: Dr. Owen Hunt is a military doc who catches Cristina's eye. He becomes the hospital's head trauma surgeon. Dr. Arizona Robbins also arrives as the new pediatric surgeon. Mark and Lexie are a couple. Derek must overcome his shaken confidence to operate on Izzie, who has a brain tumor. He also preps for his wedding with Meredith via blue Post-It. In the season finale, a mangled man is brought in to the hospital after jumping in front of a bus to save a woman. He writes "007" on Meredith's hand. She knows instantly that this dying hero is George. For detailed recaps please visit Grey's Anatomy's Season 5 Episode Guide.

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