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Commentators assert that the quranic view on human development was plagiarised from ancient Greek (Hellenic) embryology. They specifically claim that the Prophet Muhammad plagiarised the works of the ancient Greek philosopher and polymath Aristotle, and the 2nd century physician and philosopher Galen. To respond to this accusation, this section will articulate the mainstream Islamic scholarly position that the Prophet did not plagiarise or borrow ideas from Hellenic medicine.

Does similarity imply plagiarism?

To address the contention that the Prophet Muhammad borrowed or plagiarised Hellenic views on embryology, the philosophical implications of inferring plagiarism from similarity must be discussed. If there is a similarity between two things X and Y, to make the inference that X copied Y or Y copied X would require some form of evidence. Otherwise, the argument will be fallacious as it will commit the fallacy of argumentum ad ignoratiam, in other words, arguing from ignorance. Take the following example into consideration: there are two patent applications that have arrived at the patent office in the UK. The patent officer examines both applications and they appear to have a similar design for a particular product. Can the patent officer claim plagiarism? No. To justify this claim the patent officer would require a practical link establishing a connection between both authors of the patents in question. In absence of a practical link, the assertion that they copied each other is speculative and untenable. This also applies to the assertion that the Prophet plagiarised Hellenic embryology.

In light of above, practical links establishing a valid connection between the Quran and Hellenic embryology must be specific and direct. Non-direct evidence, such as an assumed popularised culture of Hellenic embryology, is not enough to prove borrowing or plagiarism. An inference made from such an assumption is weak unless all other possible explanations have been shown to be wrong or explained as improbable. For example, historians claim that there was some cultural exchange between the Greeks, Romans and Arabs. Evidence to support such a claim includes trade routes, the practice of cupping and cauterisation. However, from this evidence, can the inference that the Prophet borrowed Hellenic views on embryology be made? The structure of the argument can be presented in the following way:

1. There were some cultural exchanges between Arabs and Greeks

2. The Prophet was an Arab

3. Therefore the Prophet plagiarised Hellenic views on embryology

In light of the above, how does the conclusion (point 3) logically follow? For the commentators to claim that the Prophet plagiarised Hellenic embryology based on the above argument is unwarranted. This is due to the fact they have assumed some hidden premises. These premises include:

a. The Prophet learned Hellenic embryology from someone who studied Greek medicine.

b. Hellenic medicine was known, adopted and utilised by Arabian (or Arabic speaking) society in the early 7th century.

c. The Prophet was a liar, as He claimed the Quran to be the word of God and not the borrowed knowledge of Hellenic embryology.

d. Hellenic and quranic views on embryology are similar.

These premises will be addressed below to provide a strong case against the plagiarism thesis.

Did the Prophet learn Hellenic medicine from someone who studied Greek medicine?

According to the various biographies of the Prophet Muhammad , the only person who may have studied Greek medicine and came into direct contact with the Prophet was the physician al-Harith bin Kalada. Bin Kalada was born in the middle of the 6th century in the tribe of Banu Thaqif in Taif. Some historians maintain that he received his medical education at the Jundishapur medical school where he learnt the teachings of Aristotle and Galen.[1] According to these historians:

The major link between Islamic and Greek medicine must be sought in late Sasanian medicine, especially in the School of Jundishapur rather than that of Alexandria. At the time of the rise of Islam, Jundishapur was at its prime. It was the most important medical centre of its time, combining the Greek, Indian and Iranian medical traditions in a cosmopolitan atmosphere which prepared the ground for Islamic medicine.[2]

Following this narrative, some historians and commentators believe the Prophet plagiarised Aristotelian and Galenic accounts of the developing human embryo via bin Kalada, and sought medical advice from him.[3] This is unfounded for various reasons:

1. Claiming the Prophet sought medical advice from bin Kalada neither implies nor stipulates the fact that he copied bin Kaladas apparent knowledge of Hellenic embryology. The onus of proof is on the one who is making the claim. From a historical perspective, there is no direct and explicit evidence that indicates the Prophet manufactured his views on embryology via bin Kalada.1. It is generally believed that bin Kalada graduated from the Persian medical school at Jundishapur. However, the existence of such a school has recently been questioned by a number of leading historians. For instance, the historian David C. Lindberg in his book, The Beginnings of Western Science, highlights the legendary status of the school:

An influential mythology has developed around Nestorian activity in the city of Gondeshapur [Jundishapur] in south-western Persia. According to the often-repeated legend, the Nestorians turned Gondeshapur into a major intellectual center by the sixth century, establishing what some enthusiasts have chosen to call a university, where instruction in all of the Greek disciplines could be obtained. It is alleged that Gondeshapur had a medical school, with a curriculum based on Alexandrian textbooks, and a hospital modeled on Byzantine hospitals, which kept the realm supplied with physicians trained in Greek medicine. Of greatest importance, Gondeshapur is held to have played a critical role in the translation of Greek scholarship into Near Eastern languages and, indeed, to have been the single most important channel by which Greek science passed to the Arabs. Recent research has revealed a considerably less dramatic reality. We have no persuasive evidence for the existence of a medical school or a hospital at Gondeshapur, although, there seems to have been a theological school and perhaps an attached infirmary. No doubt Gondeshapur was the scene of serious intellectual endeavour and a certain amount of medical practice it supplied a string of physicians for the Abbasid court at Baghdad beginning in the eighth century but it is doubtful that it ever became a major center of medical education or of translating activity. If the story of Gondeshapur is unreliable in its details, the lesson it was meant to teach is nonetheless valid.[4]

Roy Porter, a social historian of medicine, raises the contention if whether a medical school actually existed there. Porter in his book, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity, writes:

Jundishapur was certainly a meeting place for Arab, Greek, Syriac and Jewish intellectuals, but there is no evidence that any medical academy existed there. Only in the early ninth century did ArabIslamic learned medicine take shape.[5]

According to the academic medic and historian Plinio Prioreschi, there appears to be no evidence of a major medical school in either the 6th or 7th century. In his book, A History of Medicine, he brings to light that there are no Persian sources that substantiate the claim that Jundishapur played a significant role in the history of medicine.[6]It is also interesting to note, that from the 5th to the 7th century, Jundishapur does not seem to have any other students that can be authenticated historically. This raises an important question: how is it that such a noted and reputable ancient academic institution has no known students?

2. Historians such as Manfred Ullman and Franz Rosenthal are skeptical about the material referring to bin Kalada. They refer to him as a legendary figure,[7] which has literary allusions to characters of fictitious creation. Professor Gerald Hawting, in his essay, The Development of the Biography of al-Harith ibn Kalada and the Relationship between Medicine and Islam, writes:

In these latter sources, the information about al-Harith is fragmentary, references to his profession as a doctor are not consistent and, where they occur, tend to be incidental, and there seems to be little information about the nature of his medicine or detail about his life.[8]

From this perspective, using unreliable or inconclusive historical narratives concerning bin Kaladas profession as a doctor, serve to weaken the argument that the Prophet copied the 7th century physician.

3. There are historical reports stating that bin Kalada converted to Islam and was considered a companion of the Prophet . Ethnographer and linguist, William Brice in his book An Historical Atlas of Islam, writes:

He wasconverted to Islamand had acquired the status of one of the Prophets Companions.[9]

Lecturer and novelist, Abubakr Asadullah expresses a similar position:

According to nearly all traditional sources, the first known Arab physician was al-Harith ibn Kalada, a graduate of Jundishapur and aJewish convert to Islam, a contemporary of Prophet Mohammad.[10]

In light of this, the Prophet copying bin Kalada is highly improbable as it is irrational to assert that an educated physician would convert to Islam, and follow the Prophets message, had he known or suspected the Prophet of copying his work on embryology. However, it must be noted that there is uncertainty as to whether bin Kalada embraced Islam and reports relating to his conversion are not authentic.[11]

4. The traditional sources that elaborate on bin Kalada also convey information relating to the Prophet , including his miracles and the supernatural eloquence of the quranic discourse. One of these sources is Tarikh al-Rusul wal-Muluk.It underlines various aspects of the life and character of the Prophet including his truthfulness. Since this source is used for sound historical information, insight, and as a point of reference on bin Kalada, reason necessitates that it also be viewed as reliable with regard to its discussion on the unquestionable integrity of the Prophet . Therefore, to accept the historical sources that elaborate on bin Kalada would be tantamount to agreeing that Prophet was truthful, thereby undermining any claim of copying and plagiarism.

5. Bin Kalada was from al-Taif, a town which came into contact with Islam only in the 8th year of the Islamic calendar, and it was during this period that Islamic historical sources first mention the physician. Therefore, it would be impossible to suggest the Prophet Muhammad copied bin Kaladas views on the developing human, because chapter 23 of the Quran and its verses referring to embryology had already been revealed by the time bin Kalada met the Prophet .[13]

6. The link between bin Kalada and the Hellenic tradition is doubted by historians. Gerald Hawting explains that due to the scientific tradition in the Golden Age, historians and biographers of the time sought links to established institutions such as Jundishapur, to associate Islam with the science of the day:

In this context [Hawting sees] a motive for the elaboration of the links of al-Harith ibn Kalada with Persia and its Hellenistic tradition.[14]

7. Even if the historical reports concerning bin Kaladas role as a physician are assumed to be accurate and valid, his medical practice raises serious doubt as to whether he learned or adopted Hellenic medicine. Historians and relevant reports concerning bin Kalada clearly describe his approach and practice of medicine as folkloric and of the Bedouin type. For instance, in one report when bin Kalada treated Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, the treatment that bin Kalada prescribed was a drink mixture made up of dates, grain and fat. This treatment is reflective of the medical ideas and treatments of the Prophet and not of Hellenic medicine.[15]

In view of the above discussion, whether bin Kalada had any formal link to Galenic and Aristotelian views on the development of the human embryo remains inconclusive, and so adopting the plagiarism thesis via bin Kalada does not carry much weight. Additionally, the historical narratives concerning bin Kalada are conflicting, speculative, doubtful and untenable. Therefore, to use bin Kalada as a valid link connecting the Prophet and Hellenic medicine is baseless. For a lengthy discussion on this topic, please refer to Khalid al-Khazarajis and Elias Kareems essay, Was al-Harith bin Kaladah the Source of the Prophets Medical Knowledge.[16]

Hellenic medicine was known, adopted and utilised by Arabian (or Arabic speaking) society in the early 7th century

Commentators assert that Hellenic embryology was common in early 7th century Arabic speaking society. This view is based on the assertion that there were cultural exchanges between the Greeks, Romans and Arabs. Cultural exchanges did occur, and its beginnings predate the advent of Islam, however it doesnt logically follow that it included Hellenic views on embryology, or that Hellenic medicine was popularised and disseminated throughout the region. To maintain such a claim is untenable, as it would imply that there is historical evidence to show that Hellenic embryology was transferred or learned via these cultural exchanges. The following points comprehensively highlight that Hellenic embryology was not transferred or learned via Greco-Arab cultural exchanges:

1. The Prophet Muhammad could not have acquiredknowledge of Hellenic embryology via written works.

The first major translations of Hellenic embryology into Arabic began at least 150 years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad . As Roy Porter in his book, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present, writes:

Only in the early ninth century did Arab-Islamic learned medicine take shape. The first phase of this revival lay in a major translation movement, arising during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809) and gaining impetus in the caliphate of his son, al-Mamun r.813-33). It was stimulated by a socioeconomic atmosphere favourable to the pursuit of scholarship, a perceived need among both Muslims and Christians for access in Arabic to ancient medicine, and the ready availability for the relevant arts.[17]

Crucial in this age of translations was the establishment in Baghdad, capital of the Islamic empire under the Abbasid caliphs, of the Bayt al-Hikma (832), a centre where scholars assembled texts and translated into Arabic a broad range of non-Islamic works. The initial translation work was dominated by Christians, thanks to their skills in Greek and Syriac. The main figure was Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d. 873), later known in the West asJohannitius, a Nestorian Christian from the southern Iraqi town of al-HiraWith his pupils, he translated 129 works of Galen into Arabic (and others into Syriac), providing the Arabic world with more Galenic texts than survive today in Greek.[18]

According to the historian of medicine Donald Campbell, the earliest possible translation of Greek medicine was done at least 50 years after the death of the Prophet by the Syrian Jew Maserjawaihi:

John the Grammarian and Aaron the Presbyter, who was also an Alexandrian, lived at the time of Mohamet (c. 622). Aaron compiled thirty books in Syriac, the material for which was derived chiefly from the Greek; these books were called the Pandects of Aaron and were said to have been translated into Arabic c. 683 by the Syrian Jew Maserjawaihi; this is of interest as it is the first definite attempt at the transmutation of the medicine of the Greeks into that of the Arabians.[19]

A Note on the 6th Century Syriac and Latin Translations

Other possible means of knowledge transfer would include non-Arabic texts, such as the Syriac and Latin translations of Galens books. However, the Prophet Muhammad did not know Syriac or Latin, therefore this is option is implausible. Also, the Prophet could have not been taught Hellenic embryology via some who had learned via these translations, as there is no evidence that he came into direct contact with anyone who had studied Greek medicine, as highlighted in the above discussion on al-Harith bin Kalada.

Significantly, historians maintain that there is no evidence of any acquisition of Hellenic medical knowledge before the beginning of the eighth century, and that it was only through double-translation, from Greek into Syriac, and from Syriac into Arabic, that the Arabs first became acquainted with the works of the Greeks. The historian John Meyendorff, in his paper Byzantine Views of Islam, highlights the points raised above:

Until the end of the Umayyad period, these Syrian or Coptic Christians were the chief, and practically the only, spokesmen for the Christian faith in the Caliphate. And it was through the intermediary of these communities and often by means of a double translation, from Greek into Syriac, and from Syriac into Arabic that the Arabs first became acquainted with the works of Aristotle, Plato, Galien, Hippocrates, and Plotinus.[20]

Since the first Arabic translations of Hellenic medicine appeared at least 50 years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad , the view that he somehow had access to the Syriac translations is unfounded, because it was through these double translations that the Arabs first became acquainted with Hellenic medicine.

Further separating the Prophet and the Syriac and Latin translations is the lack of any positive or cogent answers to the following questions:

a. If the knowledge contained in these translations informed common knowledge then why are there no oral or written reports concerning knowledge of Hellenic embryology? (See The Prophet Muhammad could not have acquired Hellenic embryology from 7th century Arabian common knowledge.)

b. Why are the quranic verses that elaborate on the developing human dissimilar to Hellenic embryology? (see Are Hellenic and quranic views on embryology similar?)

c. The historical evidence strongly suggests that Hellenic embryology was not known in early 7th century Arabic speaking society. In this context, the contention assumes the Prophet was the only person who came into contact with the Syriac or Latin translations. This inevitable conclusion is irrational and conspiratorial, especially in a 7th century Arabian context, because many people would travel to regions where Syriac and Latin was spoken. Therefore, to claim the Prophet was the only one who somehow gained knowledge via these translations, even though Hellenic embryology was not common knowledge (see point 3 below The Prophet Muhammad could not have acquired Hellenic embryology from 7th century Arabian common knowledge below), raises far more problems than it solves.

2.The Prophet Muhammad could not have been influenced by popular medical practice with a supposedly Hellenic flavour.

There is no direct historical evidence indicating that Hellenic medical practices were utilised or known in early 7th century Arabic speaking society, as Roy Porter highlights, only in the early ninth century did Arab-Islamic learned medicine take shape. Supporting this view, Donald Campbell explains that Arab physicians were brought into high repute by the early part of the 8th century as a result of studying Greek medicine.[21]

Further distancing Hellenic medical practice from early 7th century Arabic speaking society, Ibn Khaldun classifies popularised medicine during the 7th century as Arab folk medicine:

Civilized Bedouins have a kind of medicine which is mainly based upon individual experience. They inherit its use from the shaykhs and old women of the tribe. Some of it may occasionally be correct. However, that kind of medicine is not based upon any natural norm or upon any conformity (of the treatment) to temper the humors. Much of this sort of medicine existed among the Arabs. They had well-known physicians, such as al-Harith b. Kaladah and others. The medicine mentioned in religious tradition is of the (Bedouin) type.[22]

Supporting Ibn Khalduns views, the historian of medicine, Plinio Prioreschi, confirms that 7th century Arabian popularised medicine, did not reflect Hellenistic medicine:

From the pre-Islamic to the early Islamic period, there were no significant changes in the practice of medicineIn these documents we find that such medicine continued to be practiced for some time, Camel urine and milk were common remedies, various vegetable products (e.g. henna, olive oil) and other animal products (e.g. sheep fat, honey) were also considered effective.[23]

The historian Vivian Nutton in her essay, The Rise of Medicine, explains how the Arabs had their own distinct medicine which further supports the claim that the Arabs did not utilise or adopt Hellenic medicine until after the death of the Prophet Muhammad .

The Arab conquests of the seventh century crafted a new political order onto a basically Christian, Syriac-speaking society. Although the Arabs had their own medicine, based on herbs and chants, they were not numerous enough to impose it on their new subjects.[24]

A contention against this position maintains that early 7th century Arabs had practices of cupping, which was a Hellenic practice, and therefore Hellenic medical practices were transferred from the Greeks to the Arabs. There is no direct evidence to justify this claim, just because some medical practices were similar, it doesnt imply that they exchanged this practice. One can argue that it could have been the Chinese, as they also practiced cupping. Even if some of these practices were as a result of direct cultural exchanges, it doesnt logically follow that Hellenic views on embryology were also transferred. Knowledge of Hellenic embryology and emulating medical practice are not the same. Where medical practices may be adopted, as they are not complicated, details about the development of a human embryo would require education, usually at an academic institution. This is proved by the fact that by 531 CE, in Alexandria, Hellenic texts formed the basis for the Alexandrian medical curriculum.[25] In light of this, there is no substantial historical evidence that the Prophet Muhammad interacted with anyone who learned Hellenic embryology from a medical academic institution.

3. The Prophet Muhammad could not have acquired Hellenic embryology from 7th century Arabian common knowledge.

An interesting view adopted by various commentators includes highlighting the difference between practice and knowledge. For instance, a culture X may have knowledge of medical practices Y yet continue to practice their own medicine. Modern African cultures are good examples to substantiate this view. For instance, there are some cultures in Africa that are aware of germ theory and the use of anti-biotics, but still persist on the practice of witch craft and magic.In similar light, society in early 7th century Arabia could have had knowledge of Hellenic embryology but practiced its own distinct Bedouin medicine. However, there is a striking difference between the two situations. There is evidence to show that African cultures have knowledge of germ theory and western medicine, but there is no evidence to show that early 7th century Arabian society had knowledge of Hellenic embryology, and to assert such a view would be to argue from ignorance. Even if the assertion is taken seriously, more questions arise that undermine the argument. For example, why is there no evidence to show that there was knowledge of Hellenic embryology, and why are there no pre-Islamic traditions that indicate an early 7th century knowledge of the science?

Continuing with the above questions, an understanding of the Arabs well developed oral traditions serve as a means to dismantle the assertion that Hellenic medicine was known, popularised, adopted and utilised during the life of the Prophet Muhammad . The Arabs had made poetry and the transmissions of oral traditions as the means to transfer knowledge, such as stories of the famous pre-Islamic wars, ethics and current affairs. In light of this, there is no evidence of any oral tradition elaborating or even briefly mentioning Hellenic views on embryology, Muhammad Salim Khan in his book, Islamic Medicine, explains this significant point:

The pre-Islamic Arabs were familiar with the working of the major internal organs, although only in general. Surgical knowledge and practices were limited to cauterisation, branding and cupping. The care of the sick was the responsibility of the women. There is no evidence of any oral or written treatise on any aspect of medicine. There was use of folk medicine, which has interesting connections with magic. It is also interesting to note that pre-Islamic Arabia had contacts with ancient Egypt, Greece, Persia and India, where medicine was highly developed, but there is no material to suggest that is was adopted or utilised by ancient Arabs. This is particularly surprising in view of the fact that the ancient Arabs were well developed in their poetry.[27]

Was the Prophet Muhammad a liar?

Early historical sources on the Prophet Muhammads life illustrate and emphasise the integrity of his character. He was not a liar and to assert as much is indefensible. The presumption that he plagiarised Hellenic embryology, while maintaining the Quran to be the word of God, is inconceivable. The reasons for this abound, for instance he was known even by the enemies to his message as the Trustworthy.[28]

Further proof of the Prophets reliability and credibility is enforced and substantiated by the fact that a liar usually lies for some worldly gain, but the Prophet rejected all worldly aspirations, and suffered tremendously for his message.[29]He rejected the riches and power he was offered to stop promulgating his message. Significantly, he was persecuted for his beliefs; boycotted and exiled from his beloved city Makkah; starved of food; and stoned by children to the point where his blood drenched his legs. His wife passed away and his beloved companions were tortured and persecuted.[30] The psychological profile of the Prophet was obviously incongruent with a liar, and to maintain that he was dishonest is tantamount of making bold claims without any evidence. The late Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Studies W. Montgomery Watt in, Muhammad at Mecca, explores this:

His readiness to undergo persecution for his beliefs, the high moral character of the men who believed in him and looked up to him as a leader, and the greatness of his ultimate achievement all argue his fundamental integrity. To suppose Muhammad an impostor raises more problems than it solves.[31]

It was the Prophets truthfulness that was a key aspect of his success on both political and religious levels. Without his trustworthiness, which was an integral part of his moral behaviour, he could not have achieved so much in a relatively short space of time. This view is addressed by the historians Edward Gibbon and Simon Oakley in, History of the Saracen Empire:

The greatest success of Mohammads life was effected by sheer moral force.[32]

Absence of Evidence is not Evidence of Absence

Critics argue that the discussion thus far points towards an absence of evidence, and an absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. This criticism brings to light that even if there is no evidence to claim that Hellenic embryology was common knowledge, and that the Prophet Muhammad could not have learnt Hellenic medicine from the physicians of the time, it still does not prove that knowledge of Hellenic embryology was absent from early 7th century Arabic speaking society. As ever, this understanding of the above discussion is flawed. The discussion so far has presented a strong case showing that Hellenic embryology did not form part of early 7th century Arabian societys common knowledge. If it was common, it would most likely to have been recorded in the oral traditions, the written treatises, the medical practices and the historical narratives of the time. For these reasons, the claim that Hellenic embryology was common knowledge is highly unlikely. Therefore, to prolong the assertion that Hellenic embryology was common knowledge even though it is highly likely it wasnt, is almost irrational and conspiratorial.

Are Hellenic and quranic views on embryology similar?

Key Terms

Below is a linguistic breakdown of the relevant key terms used in the Quran to describe the development of the human embryo. An understanding of these will be required to understand this section.

We created man from an essence of clay, then We placed him as a drop of fluid (nutfah) in a safe place. Then We made that drop of fluid into a clinging form (alaqah), and then We made that form into a lump of flesh (mudghah), and We made that lump into bones, and We clothed those bones with flesh, and later We made him into other forms. Glory be to God the best of creators.[33]

Drop of Fluid: nutfah

This word has various meanings. For instance:

1. By looking at the Arabic language, it can mean a dribble, a trickle, a drop or semen.[34]Nutfah can also mean a singular entity which is a part of a bigger group of its kind, as suggested by the classical dictionary Lisan Al-Arab, which explains a single drop of water remaining in an emptied bucket.[35]

2. According to Prophetic tradition, the Prophet Muhammad explained the nutfah as a combination of substances from a male nutfah and from a female nutfah.[36]

3. The Quran further clarifies that that the nutfah is a single entity or a drop from a larger group of its kind by stating that the nutfah comes from semen, maniyyin in Arabic.

Had he not been a sperm (nutfah) from a semen (maniyyin) emitted?[37]

This perspective on nutfah highlights how the intended use of this word is not to portray the meaning of semen but rather that it is a substance from semen, which supports the view that it is a single substance from a larger group of its kind. The classical exegete Ibn Kathir comments on this verse and clarifies that the nutfah is a substance from semen, he states:

meaning, was not man a weak drop of nutfah from a despised fluid known as semen.[38]

4. Explaining its view on the word nutfah, the Quran in another verse elucidates how the human being is made from an extract of a liquid disdained (semen).

Then He made his posterity out of the extract (sulaalah) of a liquid disdained.[39]

As previously discussed, the word sulaalah means an extract, something drawn out or the most subtle, purest and essential constituent. The above meanings and explications bring to light that the intended use of the word nutfah is a drop of a single extract, containing a specific substance like an egg or sperm, from the male semen and the female equivalent. Therefore, the word nutfah is not just another synonym for semen.

5. The companion of the Prophet Muhammad, and the quranic exegete, Ibn Abbas mentions that the nutfah is:

from a weak drop of the water/fluid of man and woman.[40]

Ibn Abbas explanation seems to elude to the fact that the nutfah is just a fluid. Therefore, some commentators assert that this illustrates the word nutfah is a synonym for the word semen. This assertion lacks a holistic understanding, in other words it fails to take into account the other quranic verses and the Prophetic traditions referring to the nutfah. In the Prophetic traditions, when describing semen in context of its appearance and form, the words mani and maniyyan are used. This is consistent throughout various Prophetic traditions that can be found in the collections of Muslim, Nisai, Ibn Majah, Abu Dawud and Bukhari. For example, in the book of Taharah (purification) in the collection of Sunan at-Tirmidhi, Aisha (the wife of the Prophet ) narrates that she washed maniyyan from the Prophets garments.[41] If the whole corpus of exegetical material is used to form an accurate perspective on the word nutfah, Ibn Abbas statement should be taken in the context of the nutfah being a specific drop of fluid from the semen and not the semen itself. This is because the Prophetic traditions use of the words mani and nutfah in different contexts, and therefore clearly differentiate between the two terms, further highlighting they are not synonyms. Additionally, the quranic verses pertaining to the word nutfah clearly mention that the nutfah is from the semen, and not the semen itself, and that it is an extract of semen.

In light of the above, the word nutfah can mean a drop of a single extract coming from the semen (and the female equivalent), containing essential substances like a sperm or egg. The word nutfah can also mean a single spermfrom a collection of millions of sperms contained in semen, or a single drop of fluid containing a female egg, or a single egg from a group of many other eggs in the Ovaries.

6. In addition to the above, the Quran mentions another meaning for the word nutfah by describing it as a combination of mingled (al-amshaj) substances: We created man from a drop (nutfah) of mingled fluid.[42]

This verse, from a grammatical perspective, portrays an image of the nutfah as an entity made up of a combination of substances coming from the mother and the father. The word al-amshaj (mingled) is a plural adjective and it is used here with the singular noun nutfah. Grammatically, this highlights the verses concept of nutfah as being a single entity or drop produced by a combination of substances.

A Clinging form: alaqah

This word carries various meanings including: to hang, to be suspended, to be dangled, to stick, to cling, to cleave and to adhere. It can also mean to catch, to get caught, to be affixed or subjoined.[43] Other connotations of the word alaqah include a leech-like substance, having the resemblance of a worm; or being of a creeping disposition inclined to the sucking of blood. Finally, its meaning includes clay that clings to the hand, blood in a general sense and thick, clotted blood because of its clinging together.[44]

A Lump of Flesh: mudghah

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Did the Prophet Muhammad Plagiarise Ancient Greek ...

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The Herts and Essex Fertility Centre is under investigation by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority.

The investigation follows an undercover sting by the Daily Mail in which it claims reporters were offered financial incentives for donating eggs - which can be illegal.

The reporters, who posed as prospective parents, also claimed they were pressurised to enter the scheme and not offered sufficient counselling.

But Clair said she had never been put under pressure by anyone at the clinic.

"There's no kind of pressure at all," she said. "They just took me through the options and got counselling for me.

"You don't get the counselling at the Herts and Essex, they send you somewhere else and they talk to you about how you would feel about it.

"Obviously the eggs aren't genetically yours but they still grew from my blood supply.

"In terms of counselling they weren't telling me to leave. I'm quite a strong woman anyway but if you were more vulnerable they would offer you more counselling.

"If one session wasn't enough I don't think they would just say goodbye."

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority investigation is continuing.

Excerpt from:
Cheshunt woman who had twins with donated sperm and eggs urges wannabe mums not to 'give up dream' - Hertfordshire Mercury

EDINBURGH Zoo panda Tian Tian has been artificially inseminated after coming into season at the earliest time since arriving in Scotland.

As a result, zoo chiefs are now more confident than ever the giant panda will produce a cub the UKs first this summer.

The decision to go ahead with artificial insemination came after the zoo decided there was now no prospect of Tian Tian and Yang Guang ever mating naturally.

Panda experts at Edinburgh Zoo carried out the procedure in December after hormone monitoring revealed Tian Tian hit peak levels. It is the fifth time Tian Tian has been artificially inseminated.

Iain Valentine, director of giant pandas for the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, said it was important biologically for Tian Tian to breed and reproduce. Writing in his most recent blog last month, he revealed: We began hormone monitoring in December last year and as of 17/18 March Tian Tian hit peak oestrus, the earliest this has happened over the past six years and fully a month and a half earlier than last year.

As in previous years, behavioural observations made by our Chinese partners suggested that natural mating was not going to be possible, so artificial insemination was carried out using Yang Guangs sperm later on that weekend.

Tian Tian was given access outdoors a day after the AI procedure and both pandas are doing well, with Tian Tian splitting her time between her new nesting box and the wider enclosure over the past few weeks.

Whilst it is too early to say anything specific about breeding success and we will be careful in only updating you when we have concrete news we continue to believe it is important biologically for Tian Tian, a female in her prime, to breed and reproduce and add to a vital ex situ population outside of China.

He said the panda enclosure was reopened so visitors could view the pair.

The China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda (CCRCGP), Leibnitz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) and Roslin Embryology are believed to have assisted zoo staff during the procedure.

View post:
Hopes are high Edinburgh Zoo panda Tian Tian will produce a cub after fifth conception attempt - Herald Scotland

May

Champaign County

May 31 Illinois Invasive Species Symposium: 9:30 a.m. to 4 p.m., Champaign County Extension office, 801 N Country Fair Drive, Champaign, Ill., 61821.

Kane County

May 22 Whats the Buzz? Promoting and Protecting Pollinators: 6:30 to 8 p.m., Kane County Extension office, 535 S. Randall Road, St. Charles, Ill., 60174.

Kankakee County

May 20 Bird Walk: 8:30 a.m., Aroma Land and Water Preserve, 1578 S. Hieland Road, St. Anne, Ill., 60964.

May 26 Butterflies and Straw Bales: 10 a.m., Shannon Bayou, 3301 Waldron Road, Aroma Park, Ill., 60910.

La Salle County

May 19 Native American Philosophy on Nature and Humans: 9 a.m. to noon, Visitors Center, Starved Rock State Park, 2668 East 873 Road, Oglesby, Ill., 61348.

Lake County

May 20 Master Gardener Plant Sale: 9 a.m. to 2 p.m., Lake County Extension office, 100 S. Route 45, Grayslake, Ill., 60030.

May 24 Smart Phones, Apps: What Do I Do?: 10 a.m. to noon, Lake County Extension office, 100 S. Route 45, Grayslake, Ill., 60030.

Livingston County

May 22 Daves Supermarket Tour, Buying for Bone Health: 6 to 7 p.m., Dave's Supermarket, 120 S. 3rd St., Fairbury, Ill., 61739.

Macon County

May 20 Yes! You CAN: Preserving Practice, Tomatoes and Tomato Products: 9 a.m. to noon, Macon County Extension office, 3351 N. President Howard Brown Blvd., Decatur, Ill., 62521.

May 22 and 24 Food Service Sanitation Certificate Training and Exam: 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., Macon County Extension office, 3351 N. President Howard Brown Blvd., Decatur, Ill., 62521.

May 25 No Cook Meals: Your Diet, Your Kitchen, A Hands-on Approach for All: 5 to 7 p.m., Macon County Extension office, 3351 N. President Howard Brown Blvd., Decatur, Ill., 62521.

Macoupin County

May 19 4-H Pork Cookout: 11 a.m. to 1 p.m., Carlinville Square, Carlinville, Ill., 62626.

Madison County

May 20 Community Garden Workshop, Touring Local Gardens: 9 a.m. to noon, Madison County Extension office, 1 Regency Plaza Drive, Suite 200, Collinsville, Ill., 62234.

McHenry County

May 21 Master Gardener Plant Sale: 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., McHenry County Extension office, 1102 McConnell Road, Woodstock, Ill. 60098.

Mercer County

May 20 Dig It, Move It, Plant It, Clean It Gardening Workshop: 8:30 a.m. to noon, Mercer County Fairgrounds,848 170th St., Aledo, Ill., 61231.

Tazewell County

May 19 Tazewell County Embryology in the Classroom Chick Exchange: 4:30 p.m., Tazewell County Extension office, 1505 Valle Vista Blvd., Pekin, Ill., 61554.

Union County

May 22 Illinois Extensions Southern Illinois Twilight Series Meeting: 6 to 8 p.m., Shawnee Hills Lavender, 480 Brown Section Road, Cobden, Ill., 62920.

Winnebago County

+5

May 20 Forestry Management - Trees, Wildlife, and Invasive Species: 9 a.m. to noon, Atwood Center, 2685 New Milford School Road, Rockford, Ill., 61109.

May 24 Freezing Your Summer Harvest: 1 to 3:30 p.m., Winnebago County Extension office, 1040 N. Second St., Rockford, Ill., 61107.

Woodford County

May 23 Its Tomato Time!: 6:30 p.m., Eureka Public Library, 202 S. Main St., Eureka, Ill., 61530.

June

Bureau County

June 29 Bureau and Lee County Farm Bureaus Gof Outing to Support Ag in the Classroom: 9 a.m., Chapel Hill Golf Course, 12927 Co Rd 26, Princeton, Ill., 61356.

Dekalb County

June 26 Produce Safety Alliance Grower Training workshop: 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., DeKalb County Extension office, 1350 W. Prairie Dr., Sycamore, Ill., 60178.

Fulton County

June 23 Farm Safety Day Camp: 8:30 a.m. to 1 p.m., Fulton County Fairgrounds, 1325 S. Main St., Lewistown, Ill., 61542.

Tazewell County

June 1 Tazewell County Master Gardener Plant Bingo: 6 p.m., Knights of Columbus Hall, 616 W. David St., Morton, Ill., 61550.

Illinois AgriNews welcomes listings of events that can be included in the Bulletin Board. Email notices to editorial@agrinews-pubs.com.

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Illinois Bulletin Board - Agri News

12May2017

Acquisition of Heidelberg-based spin-out from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory should aid optogenetics, embryology, and other cutting-edge applications.

The US-headquartered microscope company Bruker has acquired Luxendo, a recent spin-out from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) that has developed a low-phototoxicity system based on light-sheet fluorescence.

Based in Heidelberg, Germany, Luxendo had raised 8million in venture finance as recently as January, saying that it needed the funds to expand sales, marketing and servicing activity related to its proprietary single plane illumination microscopy (SPIM) instruments after experiencing higher-than-expected demand from both academic and industrial customers.

The SPIM technology, which is equipped with two sCMOS cameras, is based around an inverted optical setup and comes with customizable laser illumination at up to eight different wavelengths.

The twin advantages of the approach, compared with regular laser scanning confocal microscopes, are that sampling time and phototoxicity and therefore damaging side effects to living specimens are both greatly reduced.

Luxendos microscopes are able to offer lower phototoxicity by only illuminating a sequential stack of thin slices of the organism being viewed at any one time.

This technology allows scientists to observe living organisms for extended periods of time without them being adversely impacted by phototoxicity, stated the firm previously.

Embryology to optogenetics For Bruker, the deal for an undisclosed sum represents the latest move to update its microscopy portfolio with innovative optical techniques aimed at applications such as live cell imaging and super-resolution microscopy.

In 2014 the Billerica, Massachusetts, firm acquired the University of Utah spin-out Vutara, whose research team had developed a 3D super-resolution technique based around a relatively powerful laser source.

And late last year Bruker commercialized an all-optical holographic module for stimulating and imaging multiple neurons in neural networks, targeting the fast-growing and high-profile market for optogenetics research.

Luxendos CEO Andreas Pfuhl says that light-sheet microscopy is revolutionizing the field of biological imaging, with the EMBL spin-out playing an influential role in its adoption for live-sample studies.

We feel that our history with EMBL has given us unique insights into what bio-imaging researchers need both right now and in the near future, he said. We are very gratified to join an internationally esteemed instrumentation company like Bruker, whose philosophy, culture and reputation so closely align with our research-oriented goals.

Much of the microscope development took place at EMBL, under the leadership of the labs cell biology and biophysics chief Lars Hufnagel, before Luxendo was founded in September 2015.

Portfolio transformation The SPIM microscopes are expected to improve Bruker's existing portfolio of swept-field confocal, super-resolution, and multiphoton fluorescence microscope product lines, enabling new research advances in small organism embryology, live-cell imaging, brain development and cleared brain tissue, and optogenetics applications.

This acquisition is another important step forward in Bruker's portfolio transformation, states the company, with Mark Munch, president of the Bruker NANO division, adding:

With its strong intellectual property position and unique SPIM technology, Luxendo has quickly established itself in the light-sheet microscopy market, particularly in Europe.

He adds that, like the Vutara acquisition, the new capabilities will provide synergies with the firms current microscopy products. We feel that we can take the business to the next level in both global market reach and next-generation development, which should greatly benefit our life sciences research customers, he said.

EMBLs director general Iain Mattaj added: It has been very rewarding to witness the rapid trajectory from pioneering technology developed at EMBL to Luxendo's well-designed, robust microscopes, and now this acquisition.

We anticipate that Bruker, with its excellent reputation in providing innovative technology, will make SPIM even more widely available. It will be truly exciting to see what the larger biological research community will discover with light-sheet microscopy.

More:
Bruker expands optical microscopy portfolio with Luxendo deal - Optics.org

Holyoke fifth-graders participated in Ag Fest at the Phillips County Event Center last Thursday, May 4, along with students from Julesburg, Revere and Creek Valley schools. Students took turns at nine different stations led by Colorado State University Extension agents who are passionate about agriculture. Instruction and hands-on activities featured range ecology, GPS, butter, honey, power and simple tools, groundwater, microbes, embryology and plant science. Ag Fest is in its eighth year of teaching important agricultural lessons to youth so they can make informed decisions in the future, even if they dont live on a farm.

Read more here:
Striking demos speak volumes at Ag Fest - Holyoke Enterprise

London - A man who froze his sperm more than two decades before having twins with his partner has claimed a new world record.

The Scottish musician, who did not want to be named, had his sperm frozen when he was 21, before starting chemotherapy treatment for cancer, as doctors warned him he would become infertile.

After his sperm had been kept in cold storage for 26 years and 243 days, his partner underwent in-vitro fertilisation in 2010. Its quite a big deal for a woman to take that on, he said. The couple gave birth to a girl and a boy the following year. He was 47 and his partner was 37. Now 54, he knew he held a world record, but did not want to go public.

File photo: The previous world record holder, Alex Powell, had had his sperm frozen for 23 years and the story was reported around the globe. Picture: AP

The previous world record holder, Alex Powell, had had his sperm frozen for 23 years and the story was reported around the globe. He was also about to undergo chemotherapy.

But the musician learnt he could be listed anonymously in Guinness World Records, and he agreed to speak to one newspaper to highlight how long sperm can be frozen and then used to produce healthy children. For people going through chemotherapy, they should keep hope, he told The Times.

Marco Gaudoin, director of the GCRM medical clinic where the treatment took place, said that frozen sperm could theoretically be stored indefinitely.

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority claims sperm can be frozen for more than 40 years, but that not all sperm survive the process.

It has to be frozen for at least six months before it can be used for treatment, to screen the donor for infections.

The Independent

Read the original here:
Scottish musician claims unusual world record - Independent Online

4 Aug 2015, 1 p.m.

The answer to the question of why so many babies are born with heart defects lies in research into the unknown and fearless funders.

Sydney embryologist Professor Sally Dunwoodie works at the frontier of genetic coding to decipher which of our 20,000 genomes are activated to help a baby's heart develop in utero. Pic supplied

ITS a curious concept, striving to fail," Sydney embryologist Professor Sally Dunwoodiesays. "It doesn't come comfortably to most people."

It's not clear that it comes easily to Dunwoodie, either, but it's a regular part of her job,working at the frontier of genetic coding to decipher which of our 20,000 genomes areactivated to help a baby's heart develop in utero.

When I ask how important failure is to her work, she laughs, and tells me about the currentresearch project into birth defects that she's running as head of embryology at the VictorChang Institute.

When the human genome was first sequenced, it took a decade and $3 million, now it can be sequenced in a week for $1600... - Professor Sally Dunwoodie

It's the biggest in Australia by a long stretch, and one of the biggest in respect of overseasresearch. Through it she hopes to find which genetic mutations trigger congenital heartdisease.

"Are we setting up to fail?" she says.

"We don't know how successful this will be. We havepredictions, that we might be able to solve 30 per cent or 40 per cent of cases, but it's in thefailure of the other 60 or 70 per cent that we will learn more, so we can know what we needto do next time."

But what constitutes failure, on a larger scale, she wonders. "Is it a total failure, even if wesolve a small percentage of cases? Or is that right, from a cost-benefit perspective? Could orshould money be spent differently?"

Part of the difficulty scientists face, in embracing what American professors of managementlike Sim Sitkin refer to as "intelligent failure", is the hurdle it places on projects, at the leadingedge of science, being granted funding.

"There is a chronic lack of funding in this country, only 10 per cent of grant applications getfunding, down from 25 per cent last year, even though they [the funding bodies] say 70 percent of applications are worthy," Dunwoodie says.

"So everyone is safe.They like you to find safe things, to have done the work basicallybefore you've got the money. That research is important, but then there is another type ofresearch which is big, interdisciplinary, it's a bit unknown, you don't really know what you'llend up with and there's a fear of failure."

And that's where Dunwoodie's interests lie.

In Australia, about eight babies are born each day with a congenital heart defect. In theUnited States, it's 40,000 a year. Worldwide, that figure is about 1 million. For the seriouscases, they need open heart surgery within 48 hours, cutting into hearts the size of a walnut.Some children require three open heart surgeries before kindergarten.

Heart defects account for 30 per cent of all birth defects, but scientists still don't know whythey happen, or who might be at risk, genetically.Until recently, money and technology has held research back.

But Dunwoodie says that haschanged, and researchers can more easily sequence all of a person's 20,000 genes in onehit, even sequencing entire genomes, which includes the genes and the DNA materialbetween them.

"When the human genome was first sequenced, it took a decade and $3 million, now it canbe sequenced in a week for $1600 ... Cheap technology means we can think bigger thanwe've ever had the possibility to do."

In 2003, at Sydney's Westmead Children's hospital, cardiac surgeon David Winlaw hit on theidea of starting a DNA bank, collecting samples from his patients and their families in thehope that one day it would be useful.

"We're talking about sifting through 3 billion pieces of information per person," Dunwoodiesays of her decision to sequence the 2000 samples in the DNA bank, and more that her ownteam of researchers have collected.

"It's just absolutely phenomenal. That kind of project though, the government fundingagencies are not going to fund. It's a fishing expedition, you don't know what you're going tofind, you need a lot of money and it's risky. But how are you ever going to get anywhereunless you push the boundaries?"

The money problem has been solved, at least in part, by donations over the past three yearsfrom Chain Reaction, a group of lycra-clad senior executives who ride 1000 kilometres eachyear raising money for children's charities.

"I get anxious about the size of the project, what people might expect ... In the businessworld, people might expect things to happen quickly, or for an 80 per cent success rate,"Dunwoodie says.

"This is a long slow business."

The Australian Financial Review/Westpac 100 Women of Influence Awards promote bold and diverse women championing change in business and society. Enter yourself orsomeone you know in one or more of the 10 categories: local/regional, board/management,innovation, culture, public policy, business enterprise, diversity, young leader, global, socialenterprise/notforprofit. Entries close August 9. For more information go to 100 Women of influence.

Here is the original post:
One hundred women of influence: Sally Dunwoodie - Western Advocate

LEBANON Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center is discontinuing its Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility (REI) program at the end of this month, leaving some patients with questions.

The Medical Center has evaluated its REI program over the past few months and determined that they cannot offer the quality of care that the patients need and deserve without appropriate resources, said Rick Adams, Director of External Relations for Dartmouth-Hitchcock.

News of this came as a shock for at least one patient who contacted NH1 News curious as to why the public found out before the patients did. Adams did not answer specifically why the Medical Center did not contact patients first, but did say that they were in the process of notifying patients as of 1 p.m. Tuesday, although he did not say how.

Dartmouth-Hitchcock is working towards transitioning patients to appropriate programs around the region to continue their care, Adams added.

The patient, who asked to remain anonymous, expressed concerns over how the Medical Center will ensure that her embryos, along with other patients, don't die during the transfer process to different facilities. Adams did not go into specifics regarding this question.

"While the infertility program itself will be discontinued, our Embryology and Andrology laboratory will remain available to our patients and to the programs to which they transition, as part of their continuum of care," Adams stated.

The program is coming to an end effective May 31, providing three weeks for patients to find other arrangements. Adams did not specify why the Medical Center selected this date.

Dr. Edward Merrens, Dartmouth-Hitchcock's chief clinical officer, told the Valley News the decision stemmed from difficulty in finding "the right amount of staffing" to support the work, which can involve monitoring patients seven days a week. Merrens added that the program made a profit and that financial considerations did not factor into the decision to close the program.

Adams did not answer why profits from the program were not put towards more staffing to keep the program running.

"We understand the impact this difficult decision has on our infertility patients. In the end, it is clear that we cannot sustain the program, and our belief is that ending our REI program and helping our patients find a program that can support them is in those patients best interest," Adams said.

Originally posted here:
Dartmouth-Hitchcock discontinuing infertility program leaving patients with concerns - NH1 News

Jane Lethlean Correspondent

FREEPORT Center Elementary Schoolsecond-grader Brennan Endsley looked through the window of an incubator filled with chicks and hatching eggs.

I check on them every day, and I was so excited when some of them hatched, and now we get to watch them grow," she said. "They are so cute, and I learned about unfertilized and fertilized eggs.

Chicks began hatching in the incubator in Jeanine Shumakers class on Tuesday. On April 10, 18 eggs and the incubator were delivered to the classroom by Brittani DeVries, education coordinator for the Conservation and Agriculture Partners for the Ag in the Classroom unit on embryology studies.

Twelves area schools are participating in the embryology unit, DeVries said. The chicks and incubators were donated by Pearl Valley Farms and the Stephenson County Farm Bureau. All educational supplies for the unit are also donated to the schools.

What makes the embryology unit fun is the students get to experience life and farming first-hand, DeVries said. Not all students are farm kids, but what this unit is more about is science and being able to watch an embryo develop.

DeVries said most schools that participate in the program find homes for the chicks, but otherwise they go to a farm in Orangeville.

Shumaker said she applied to be part of the unit last year and was happy she was able to bring the unit to her second-grade class this year. Of the 18 eggs brought to the classroom, 10 hatched, two didnt survive and six didnt come to fruition.

All 10 surviving chicks are thriving. Shumaker plans to take one chick home to be with her flock and the rest will be taken home by another teacher.

I have wanted to do a unit on embryology for a long time, Shumaker said. I have chickens at home, and I wanted the students to learn about life cycles and how the environment affects animals.

Shumaker said the students read books and did their research on the different types of chicken breeds. The students partnered up to study colors and feathers of the chickens, but the excitement began when the incubator arrived in the classroom.

Each day, the students used a method called candling, which involves looking inside the egg by shining a bright light into it to watch the development of the chick. Its used to test whether an egg is good to go into the incubator and whether the embryo develops as it should.

They came to us in an egg carton, and then we placed them in the incubator, Shumaker said. This has the students have hands-on experience, and their response is they wanted to learn more. The more exposure to life they have, the greater respect they will have. To experience it, you learn more and doing things like this helps them remember what they did in school.

Grace Lewis said she checked out books from her library to learn more about chickens.

I got to read about chickens, and then I got to see them born, Lewis said. We had to let them dry before we could hold them, and its exciting to watch them eat. They are so cute.

Jane Lethlean: jlethlean1210@gmail.com; @DOGWMN2

The rest is here:
Center Elementary School students watch chicks hatch - Freeport Journal-Standard