Bandung Mayor M. Ridwan Kamil says that his grandfather, the late cleric K.H. Muhyiddin, had a lot of wisdom, particularly relating to kindness and human relations, that is worth spreading among people.

Muhyiddin was the man who established the Pagelaran Islamic boarding school (pesantren), whose branches are scattered across the province of West Java.

The boarding school itself was established in the Subang regency by Muhyiddin around the year 1880. In line with the socio-political atmosphere of that time, the boarding school was also set up in Sumedang and other parts of the West Java province.

The boarding school contributed significantly to Indonesias struggle for independence from the colonialists. The Pagelaran boarding school in Subang, for instance, was once the base camp of the Hizbullah movement fighting the incipient nations colonial masters.

We have to remember the fighting spirit of the boarding house, carrying it to the present, where the boarding school has to remain active in contributing to nation building, Ridwan said.

Furthermore, he also said that his grandfathers wisdom and exemplary behavior should be emulated by the public.

I also hope that his exemplary behavior can inspire the generations to come. He believed that human beings could be more useful [for their fellow humans] if they engaged in creative activities in their lives, Ridwan said during the third congress of the Pagelaran Islamic boarding school management coordination institution in Bandung, West Java.

According to Ridwan, he has witnessed concrete examples demonstrating that his grandfathers beliefs really ring true in our day-to-day lives.

-(Photo courtesy of Bandung city administration/-)

Our generosity in sharing knowledge and maintaining our connections with other human beings will only lead us to experience more kindness, which is infinite in nature, he said.

By spreading kindness to other human beings, we actually leave footprints that will be remembered by other people, even long after we have passed away.

In order to sustain the legacy of his grandfathers exemplary behaviors, the mayor said he dreamt of setting up a Pagelaran boarding school in Bandung, as an institution that will preserve great values among young people.

We have so many land plots in Bandung that we can make use of. As a mayor, I have facilitated the activities of various mass organizations, religious and non-religious. If we are able to manage these activities positively, many people will respond to this initiative in an enthusiastic manner, he said.

Excerpt from:
We should emulate KH Muhyiddin's exemplary behavior: Bandung Mayor - Jakarta Post

In 1962, a strange epidemic swept through several communities in Tanganyika, present-day Tanzania. It wasnt a virus, but laughter among teenage schoolgirls. The contagious laughter, which lasted for about two and a half years, afflicted about 1,000 people and forced at least 14 schools to temporarily shut down.

Experts later determined that the origin of the epidemic was psychological, perhaps related to stress caused by the presence of British colonialism. But such events have raised scientific questions about why humans cant control behaviors such as laughing, yawning, coughing and shivering and why they spread among groups of people.

We are a part of a human herd whose behavior is often the involuntary playing out of an ancient neurological script that is so familiar that it goes unnoticed, wrote neuroscientist Robert Provine in his book, "Curious Behavior."

Consider what is really happening when your body is hijacked by an observed yawn or you spontaneously join others in a communal chorus of ha-ha-ha," Provine wrote. "You dont decide to yawn or laugh contagiously. It just happens.

Provinediscovered that people are 30 times more likely to laugh around others than alone. To date, there has been much research thats observed socially contagious behaviors in humans and animals, but scientists are just starting to look into what makes them ripple through groups of people.

Empathy may not have much to do with it

Many studies have suggested that empathy could explain contagious yawning. A study published a year ago, for example, indicated that women are more susceptible to catch yawns than men. Researchers also noted that women score higher on empathy tests, and thought the two might be associated.

Another study published in 2008 found that dogs may yawn in response to their owners, but not to strangers or other dogs. Researchers wrote that because dogs are incredibly skilled at reading human cues and generally have unique social interactions with people, there is the potential that dogs may also have developed the capacity for empathy towards humans, and may catch human yawns.

Other studies, however, suggest that empathy is less significant in contagious behaviors than we might think. A paper in 2014 published by Duke University researchers, for example, analyzed various factors that influenced yawning among more than 300 human volunteers. Scientists considered a number of influencers such as empathy, energy levels and age. They saw that contagious yawning decreased among older people.

In our study, there was a connection between contagious yawning and empathy, but it was explained by a stronger connection between contagious yawning and age, said Elizabeth Cirulli, a geneticist at Duke University and an author of that paper.

Other research also showed that young children arent likely to catch yawns from other people, either.

Itch researchers at Washington University believe empathy has very little to do with such behaviors. This month, they published a study in the journal Science that showed that mice will scratch themselves in response to seeing videos of other mice that have chronic itch problems.

At the beginning, this [experiment] may sound like a crazy idea because, as you know, mice are nocturnal. They have very poor vision, said Zhou-Feng Chen, director for the schools Center for the Study of Itch.

Chen and his colleagues examined the brains of the non-itchy mice in the study and found that a specific

region, called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, released a chemical thats been known to signal when theres an itch that needs to be scratched.

Basically, our study shows those kinds of contagious behaviors are instinctive behaviors and are hardwired into our neurocircuitry, Chen said.

However, more research is needed to understand exactly how involved the brain is when we uncontrollably copy each others behaviors. As Cirulli noted, other factors need to be examined. Empathy, she said, shouldnt be ruled out, but is likely just as connected to such behaviors as height is to weight.

I dont think empathy is totally unrelated, Cirulli said. Its just that its absolutely not everything thats going on with contagious yawning. In some cases, its a proxy for something else.

We behave like the pack to survive

In the animal kingdom, one principle that prevails is strength in numbers. Snow geese, for example, will fly in groups as large as 5,000. A pack of zebras will whine loudly when they detect a predator nearby.

Some scientists believe that humans evolved to uncontrollably copy others behavior, as a means of communicating important information.

You can imagine millions of years ago when animals lived widely and maybe living in places where there are parasites," Chen said. "If all the animals begin to scratch, it could mean the area that theyre in may be dangerous.

He further speculated that as scratching became a regular way to alarm others that they needed to leave certain environments, its possible that the behavior became innate and written into our genetics over time.

From an evolutionary point of view, contagious behaviors actually help animals to better survive because you dont have to learn everything from scratch, Chen said.

How the brain works

While it might seem frivolous to study why we catch yawns and participate in other kinds of unconsciously provoked micmicry, the research could provide fundamental insight into how our brains work and develop. For instance, a 2009 study by University of Zurich researchers showed that contagious yawning and laughing happened much less frequently with people who have schizophrenia. Yawning also spread much less among people with autism.

Such findings still need further research to be understood. However, its promising that contagious scratching is observed among mice, for example, since theyre often used as experimental subjects to understand brain diseases.

Reflecting on her contagious yawning study, Cirulli mused that it would be interesting to study how genetics might influence a persons susceptibility to this behavior and how that might be connected to neurological conditions.

Because big genetic studies have been done on schizophrenia and autism and other diseases, you can calculate someones risks of developing those diseases from their genetic information and you can see if its associated with contagious yawning, she said.

Follow Eli Chen on Twitter:@StoriesByEli

See original here:
Contagious yawning, laughing and scratching gives clues to how the human brain works - KBIA

How to predict violence after leaving an abuser

We know that leaving is the most dangerous time for a domestic violence survivor. Abusers often lash out in an attempt to regain control over their partner or may resort to extreme violence, even homicide, because they feel they have nothing left to lose. But not all abusers escalate violence when the survivor leaves. So how do you know if your abuser will?

There are plenty of stories in which an abuser becomes violent after the survivor decides to end the relationship, even though no physical abuse was present while they were together. Survivor Audrey Mabrey has one such story she told DomesticShelters her husband became violent for the first time only after they became estranged.

For the most part, though, examining your partners behavior during the relationship will give you the best clues as to how he will act once you leave.

Danger Ahead Red Flags to Watch For

Human behavior is one of the hardest things to predict, says Melanie Carlson, MSW, a former shelter advocate and case manager who is currently working on her Ph.D. in gender-based violence. Still, past behavior is the most predictive of future behavior. There are often clear patterns in behavior.

Domestic violence has a high rate of recidivism, meaning if it happens once, its likely to happen again. A Bureau of Justice survey found that women ages 35 to 49 who reported an incident of intimate partner abuse had previously been abused by the same partner.

If your partner was physically abusive during the relationship, he or she may continue to be physically abusive after the relationship ends. And if the physical violence escalated during the relationship, it is best to assume it may continue to escalate after leaving. There are other red flags to look out for, too, Carlson says.

If there was physical abuse while pregnant or in public, strangulation, threats with a weapon or statements like, If you leave, Ill kill myself, use extreme caution when leaving, she says. Those kinds of behaviors show theyre really not concerned with consequences.

Access to weapons is another predictor of intimate partner homicide, particularly intimate partner femicide, or the murder of a woman. A womans chance of being murdered by her abuser increases by 500 percent if a gun is present in the home.

Abusive partners with any military or police trainingthat makes the situation more dangerous because of their access to weapons and being more effective at doing max physical harm, Carlson says.

Dont Ignore Nonphysical Warning Signs

Of course, abusers may resort to violence once the relationship ends even if they werent physically abusive during the relationship. Carlson recommends taking caution when leaving a relationship if your partner showed any signs of controlling behavior, including financial abuse, sexual coercion, isolating you from loved ones, verbal abuse and gaslighting.

If youre dealing with any of this, its best to talk to someone who has expertise in safety planning and the resources to get you the help you need, Carlson says. Call a hotline or reach out to a shelter to talk to someone who can coach you through all the mechanisms you can use to leave safely.

Thinking about leaving but scared of what your partner might do? Read Leave Without Dying (bit.ly/2oaNbmW) for tips on what to think about when it comes to getting out safely.

Relief After Violent Encounter - Ionia/ Montcalm, Inc. (RAVE) offers free and confidential services to survivors of domestic and sexual violence in Ionia and Montcalm counties. For more information, visit http://www.raveim.org. If you are a victim of domestic violence or sexual assault, call RAVEs 24-hour crisis and support line at 1-800- 720-7233.

Link:
'Will my partner be violent after I leave?' - Sentinel-Standard

Larry Aumiller spent 40 years trying to come to terms with the expression on the Boone and Crockett Clubs bear statue.

Those bears can be aggressive, Aumiller said. But thats less than one-hundredth of a percent of what they do. In fact, if you want to be really typical, youd have them sleeping.

Standing beneath the ferocious bronze with its flared lips and reaching paws, the man who ran Alaskas McNeil River State Game Sanctuary for three decades can back up his opinion. If youve ever seen a picture of a huge bear catching a salmon, it was probably taken by someone standing close to Larry Aumiller. He recently winnowed through 35,000 slides he shot while leading visitor groups to the fabled riverside.

Aumillers experiences have been compiled in a new book by Jeff Fair released this month. Titled In Wild Trust, it lays out Aumillers conviction that big bears deserve a place in a human-dominated world.

Aumiller told his story to Fair, first in an Anchorage coffeeshop and then through dozens of interviews at Aumillers Missoula home. Fair himself spent 23 years in Alaska studying wildlife. He also trapped grizzly bears for radio-collar studies in Yellowstone National Park and worked for decades managing loons and other creatures all over North America.

A recent McNeil River study logged 14 serious bear charges toward people in the sanctuarys 50-year existence. In each case, it appeared the person triggered the charge and the bear was a non-habituated newcomer to the scene.

Habituated bears are very predictable, Aumiller said. I realize its a really tough sell, but its possible for humans and bears to co-exist in the same place. And to live with them not only enhances our day, it sets the stage for long-term human survival. Theres a quote from Chuck Jonkel: If we can live with them, we can live with ourselves.

Jonkel died last April at 85 after decades of teaching bear biology and founding the International Wildlife Film Festival in Missoula. Most living bear researchers and managers today had some contact with him as a student, colleague or occasional scratching post.

At a recent conference on bear-human interaction, the roomful of experts was debating how to handle the growing interest in raising chickens (which tempt bears). From the back of the room, Jonkel raised his hand to speak.

The room went silent, Aumiller recalled. Chuck says, 7.2 billion people in the world, and were talking about chickens? He was always a big-picture guy.

Because the big picture shows humans building houses and roads in prime bear country. The vast majority of those humans only deal with bears in two dimensions, as a photograph or possibly a rug. The idea of sharing personal space with, as Aumiller says, something big and furry that bites engages more the cave-dwellers primal fear than the space-travelers rational consideration.

We have an intellectual ability to get beyond fear, Aumiller said. Just driving to this interview today was statistically more dangerous than all those years in the (McNeil) sanctuary. I wish we were more tolerant as a species. It would be good for critters and good for us, too.

When former Missoulian reporter Ginny Merriam got a chance to visit McNeil River in 1999, she encountered Aumiller. As she described the scene:

Humans can visit here, but only in groups of 10 or fewer, flanked at either end by bear biologists armed with tender sensibilities and Remington Model 870 shotguns that they never use. The guests must bunch together, talk softly, make small movements, never threaten or crowd a bear and never, ever allow a bear to get human food. In the 25-mile-long and 4- to 5-mile-wide McNeil River State Game Sanctuary at the top of the Alaska Peninsula and off Cook Inlet, no bear is hunted or even darted and tagged.

Aumiller, who has been called the Dian Fossey of bears and obsessive, is recognized as one of the best in the world at reading bears. He believes passionately that people and bears can live together peacefully if the tone of the relationship is set up properly. Bears can be habituated to the presence of people if the people exhibit inoffensive and predictable human behavior rather than setting up an adversarial relationship in which we yell and shoot, and bears flee and attack, he says. His definition of habituation means the absence of a flight response and the absence of aggression.

Some bear biologists believe any habituated bear is a dangerous bear. Aumiller and (fellow McNeil staff member Derek) Stonorov disagree. They say a key is keeping bears from seeing people as food sources, becoming food-conditioned.

Aumiller maintains that basic rule underpins all good bear management. As federal, Montana, Idaho and Wyoming wildlife managers contemplate removing Endangered Species Act protection from grizzly bears in the Rocky Mountains, those rules will undergo lots of review.

In advance of that possibility, Aumiller has spent much time working with organizations like Missoula-headquartered Vital Ground Foundation, which protects bits of landscape necessary for bear survival.

Larrys experiences in McNeil River produced some amazing insights, said Vital Ground administrator Shannon Drye. Hes helped us select properties and made sure they were the best parcel for grizzly bear need, like biological connectivity between ecosystems. He really brought the biological expertise.

All that expertise came despite never attending a wildlife class or earning a biology degree. Fair described Aumillers first day at McNeil in 1976, wondering when he would see his first bear:

Then he remembered the raft carrying his equipment and goods, out there by the incoming tide. He went to the door. Something was wrong with the picture before him. His raft and its cargo were now animated. Bow, stern, and sides leaping up and down, loaded rifle (protection!) tossing into the air now and again, boxes of food somersaulting in the wild tumult

The engine of the whole performance, the perpetrator, was a young brown bear, who had become infatuated with the rubbery bounciness of the raft. Aumiller watched the young bear, rump-down in the raft and obviously enjoying the effects of pounding his paws on the inflated sides of his new playpen, making the gun and food boxes bounce to high heaven reveling in the entertainment.

He stood at the threshold of his new headquarters, the bear now in possession of his loaded gun, his food and his raft and wondered what the hell to do.

Aumiller told the bear to leave, and it did. That idea of setting trust boundaries became the foundation of McNeil River interactions, although the wider world still has trouble with the concept. Looking at a map of the sanctuary, Aumiller points out the surrounding McNeil River State Game Refuge, itself surrounded by the Katmai National Park and Katmai National Preserve, which in turn are enveloped by the rest of Alaska. Each place has different rules where bears are revered as tourist attractions or keystone predators or hunting trophies, with the bears themselves wandering across invisible lines at will.

I spent 34 years with (Alaska State) Fish and Game, Aumiller said. I understand hunting, although Id never shoot a bear. I hope to get people convinced that its possible to live with them. To do that, you have to protect the absolutely best places on earth.

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Master of McNeil tells how he learned to trust bears - Casper Star-Tribune Online

Metamorphosesby Ovid explains that misogynistic behavior of men are displayed during the time period. Gods and goddesses are all very flawed characters, advising us that even immortals arent perfect. The men in the book are flawed because of their morals; they are flawed because they sexual assault goddesses and they believe they are powerful. This also represents people in todays society. Ovids book reflects his opinion about men and mens misogynistic behavior back then and how it is reflected in todays society.

The gods inMetamorphosesdo not have any morals because they think they are the most powerful. The highest level of authority is the Gods, even above the goddesses.Metamorphoses doesnt really have a plot but a rather series of scenes. In these scenes the characters reflect the carelessness in society.In this scene the god decides to kill someone.

His plan was to make a sudden attack in the night on my

Sleeping.

Body and kill me. This was chosen method of

Proving

The truth. Not content with that, he applied his sword

To the throat (Ovid 16.)

This quote express that the gods show no mercy to humans and is a reflection of human behavior. There are many people who are violent and have uncontrollable behavior in todays society. In one scene a god rapes a goddess and turns into a tree, stroking her. This is also displayed in the news today. According to New York Daily News, a student recently, from Columbia was raped by her boyfriend. The student carried a mattress around campus trying to remove her rapist from campus. Even though some men dont behave morally, others do.

In the bookMetamorphosesthere are a large portion of misogynistic behaviors such as rape. In this scene Nereus is getting raped. The perpetrator is sexually aroused and wants full power over her.

When Perseus noticed the maiden tied by the arms to a

Jagged

Rock-face (but for the light breeze stirring her hair and

The warm tears

Coursing over her cheeks, he would have supposed she

Was merely

A marble statue), unconscious desire was kindled

Within him, (Ovid 164.)

In this scene Perseus gets such extreme sexual desires that he rapes her. Its in mens animalistic behavior, and strong urges arise to do this when a man is attracted to a women.This shows the behavior that still goes on today. In the past there were no rules against sexual assault, but now there are. However rape is still a huge problem around the world. There are a slew of cases, similar to this one. There is a situation where a girl from India wasgang raped and she got beaten to death. Men in certain parts of the world sometimes dont respect women.This behavior is human nature and it is dominating over women. That is what Ovid is trying to represent in the book.

In Metamorphosesmen manipulate women. Men look at women as some pretty object, with whom they can play.Men believe they have all the power. The gods in this book believe they are the most powerful. This scene explains how men dominate the earth.

So man came into the world. Maybe the great artificer

Made him of seed divine in a plan for a better universe.

Maybe the earth that was freshly formed and newly

Divorced from the heavenly ether retained some seeds of its

Kindred element-

Earth, which Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, sprinkled with

Raindrops

And moulded into the likeness of gods who govern the

Universe.

When other animals walk on all fours and look to the ground,

Man was given a towering head and commanded to stand (Ovid 8,9.)

This quote explains how man tries to dominate the world. This quote reflects what Ovid thinks of men. It shows that he thinks men have all the power over everything. Even today men seem to have more power over women. Women get less of a salary than men in certain cases.

This book,Metamorphoses,shows the opinion of Ovid and how he believes that we live in a misogynistic world, even today. Women have politically and economically less power than men. Men want to be dominant over women, they own most of the businesses and back in the book,Metamorphose, women didnt even have jobs. There was a time women didnt even go to college. Some countries such as Lebanon women cant even get a divorce. (Presentation social work) InMetamorphoses thegod and goddesses get themselves in sticky situations, reflecting human behavior and how all humans are imperfect. There really is no plot in this book but it reflects how flawed society is. This book also shows how there is no such thing as love and most men want power. The gods lust after the goddesses. Today, in society, there are a lot of relationships built out of lust. However, there are some stable and loving relationships. Overall, in the bookMetamorphoses,there is a lot of misogynistic behavior in the book. There is also much misogynistic behavior in todays society. Sometimes men would beat their wives or sexually assault them but it also can be the other way around where women can beat their husband or abuse them or sexually assault them too like Duessa from Metamorphoses. Women had less control of what was happening and what to create. In this book the goddesses were abused. The men had more power, sexually assaulted women and had flawed morals. With this kind of behavior in this world, will humans ever grow? This superiority complex some people are affecting our world from growing. This shows how flawed society is. Human behavior reflects humans intelligence. It is the time humans need to acknowledge that women and men should have equal rights. Ovids story shows that humans are flawed and society is very misogynistic.

Link:
Book Review: Metamorphoses by Ovid - Uloop News

ideas42, a leading non-profit behavioral design firm, hasunveiled a unique approach to highlighting and resolving key behavioral problems in cybersecurity with the launch of an original, serialized novella.

The new true-crime- style short story Deep Thought: A Cybersecurity Story dramatizes the human factors in cybersecurity and is followed by a robust index of key insights from behavioral science that can be used to improve security protocols.

The narrative, to be released in multiple installments, highlights the human actions and decisions that often compromise digital information and computer security.

These range from password issues to more complex concerns such as coding practices and organizations resource investment choices.

(Experts estimate that 70-80% of the costs attributed to cyber attacks are actually the result of human error. Thats why ideas42 is applying a behavioral science lens to what has traditionally been considered a technological problem. Courtesy ofideas42 and YouTube)

Despite public and private sector investments in sophisticated security systems, the level of risk is immense.

In the search for answers, efforts have been heavily skewed toward finding technological solutions. However, up to 80% of the cost attributed to cyber-attacks is actually a result of human error.

With Internet access rapidly expanding across the globe and the proliferation of greater connectedness across business, finance, and individuals, ensuring privacy and security is more important than ever, as underscored by recent high-profile breaches such as the hacking of American political party systems during the 2016 election cycle.

It is because of the urgency around strengthening cybersecurity that we chose to present our insights as an engaging novella instead of using the more traditional white paper approach, said ideas42 Executive Director Josh Wright.

With the release of a unique piece like Deep Thought: A Cybersecurity Story and our supporting analysis, we hope to reach more leaders and decision-makers who can take needed steps to increase the strength of their organizations digital networks.

The first installment of ideas42s novella debuted today at New Americas Cybersecurity for a New America conference and can be read at ideas42.org/cyber.

Simply clicking on a bad link can be devastating to network security, and the strongest security network in the world is only as good as the human with the password, continued Wright.

Furthermore, human error in security is not limited to end-users. The challenges around understanding and addressing human behavioral factors in cybersecurity present a rich vein of opportunity for making the system as a whole more robust.

(Hear from the author,Josh Wright, Executive Director at ideas42 on Changing the World with Behavioral Science, courtesy ofBehaviourWorks Australiaand YouTube)

ideas42s work in cybersecurity is supported by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation Cyber Initiative in partnership with New Americas Cybersecurity Initiative. The goal is to focus on behavioral insights and solutions that can be adopted quickly and brought to scale.

For a full copy of the novella and behavioral insight appendix contact us at cyber@ideas42.org.

To use our unique experience at the forefront of behavioral science to change millions of lives.

We create innovative solutions to tough problems in economic mobility, health, education, consumer finance, energy efficiency and international development.

Our approach is based on a deep understanding of human behavior and why people make the decisions they do. Working closely with our partners from government, foundations, NGOs and companies, we have more than 80 active projects in the United States and around the world.

Original post:
True Crime Novella Highlights Human Factor in Cyber Solutions (Video) - 107.180.56.147 (press release) (registration) (blog)

Porvorim: The Goa University (amendment) Bill, 2017, which seeks to enhance the retirement age of the teaching staff of Goa Medical College (GMC), Goa Dental College and the Institute of Psychiatry and Human Behavior (IPHP), Bambolim, from 62 years to 65 years, was tabled in the Goa legislative assembly on Thursday.The bill proposes to amend section 15A of the Goa University Act in a bid to prevent the loss of senior and experienced teaching faculty.The GMC its...

News Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gu-bill-seeks-increase-in-retirement-age/articleshow/57800318.cms

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GU bill seeks increase in retirement age - NYOOOZ

Winona States loss is Viterbo Universitys gain

Martha Scheckel, chair of the WSU nursing department, has been appointed Viterbos new dean of the College of Nursing, Health and Human Behavior. She will begin July 1.

Scheckel began her teaching career as an adjunct in Viterbos bachelors nursing completion program and became an assistant professor in 2005. She has been involved with nursing education for more than 13 years, including experience leading undergraduate nursing programs at WSU and Michigan State University and her scholarship has focused on trends and issues in nursing education.

I am elated about joining the Viterbo University community and being part of such a respected university with a strong and steadfast mission and core values, Scheckel said. I am especially excited about collaborating with its members at a time when the nursing, health, and human behavior fields are in need of highly qualified individuals to serve societys complex and dynamic health and human service needs.

See the article here:
WSU nursing dept. head to be new Viterbo dean - Winona Daily News

by Michael D. Gaetani on March 22, 2017 4:39 pm

Its back to the future for CASBS (Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University) and the Ford Foundation. And thats a very good thing.

CASBS owes its existence to the Ford Foundation. In the early 1950s the foundation launched a major initiative in the social and behavioral sciences. The last of five program areas endorsed in a 1949 Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program called for strengthening of basic knowledge of individual Behavior and Human Relations. This Program V concept eventually led to Fords establishment of CASBS, embodying the foundations post-war optimism about the contribution of social science toward advancing human welfare. CASBS broadly was charged through scientific work, to increase knowledge of factors which influence or determine human conduct, and extends such knowledge for the maximum benefit of individuals and society.

The institutional connection was so inextricable that a few early acknowledgments and references by fellows casually identify CASBS as the Ford Center. A subtitle in a Sept. 24, 1954, San Francisco Chronicle article covering the opening of the center also refered to it as the Ford Foundation Study Project.

CASBS remains committed to the basic goals it was founded to advance. In a contemporary landscape of shifting means to best pursue those goals, CASBS and the Ford Foundation both acknowledge the importance of understanding the sources and consequences of societal inequalities. Both seek to identify points of leverage that can transform the norms, beliefs, institutions and practices of our societies in order to make them more equitable, inclusive and socially protective.

As a vote of confidence in the centers approach and guiding principles, the Ford Foundation recently approved a one-year core support of $450,000 to the center. Furthermore, pending CASBS reports of its activities and accomplishments to Ford during the grant term, there is provisional agreement to extend the core support by the same amount for a second and third year.

The Ford Foundations support of CASBS goes back to the centers founding, and we are delighted to support the centers historic renewal, including the effort to make the most of the centers position at a great university in the heart of Silicon Valley, said Xavier de Souza Briggs, vice president of the Ford Foundations Economic Opportunity and Markets program. We recognize the vital role of innovative discovery of producing but also advancing cutting-edge ideas about some of the worlds most important problems.

CASBS director Margaret Levi and California State Supreme Court Justice Mariano-Florentino Cuellar, chair of the CASBS board, concur and are thrilled by the reestablishment of the centers link with its founding sponsor.

Few institutions can match CASBSs singular and long-term focus on understanding human behavior and society, said Cuellar. Our commitment to working across disciplines and our location at Stanford in the heart of Silicon Valley make CASBS sensitive to the importance of major technological changes as well as technical solutions seeking to improve the human condition. CASBS remains focused on exploring the human and societal dimensions of such change. Fords support will strengthen the centers capacity to leverage all the social sciences to become more focused on inequality and its economic, health and societal consequences.

Read more on why the timing of the CASBS-Ford Foundation reunion could not be better.

Continue reading here:
CASBS secures core support from Ford Foundation - Stanford University News

This article is about human sexual anatomy, sexuality and perceptions. For information specifically about sexual activities, see Human sexual activity.

Human sexuality is the capacity of humans to have erotic experiences and responses. A person's sexual orientation can influence their sexual interest and attraction for another person.[1] Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways; including thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships.[2] These may manifest themselves in biological, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual aspects. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle, and the basic biological drive that exists in all species.[3][pageneeded] Physical and emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between individuals that is expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust, and care. Social aspects deal with the effects of human society on one's sexuality, while spirituality concerns an individual's spiritual connection with others. Sexuality also affects and is affected by cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life.[4]

Interest in sexual activity typically increases when an individual reaches puberty.[5] Opinions differ on the origins of an individual's sexual orientation and sexual behavior. Some argue that sexuality is determined by genetics, while others believe it is molded by the environment, or that both of these factors interact to form the individual's sexual orientation.[1] This pertains to the nature versus nurture debate. In the former, one assumes that the features of a person innately correspond to their natural inheritance, exemplified by drives and instincts; the latter refers to the assumption that the features of a person continue to change throughout their development and nurturing, exemplified by ego ideals and formative identifications.

Genetic studies work on the premise that a difference in alleles corresponds to a variation in traits among people.[6] In the study of human chromosomes in human sexuality, research has shown that "ten percent of the population has chromosomal variations that do not fit neatly into the XX-female and XY-male set of categories".[7]

Evolutionary perspectives on human coupling, reproduction and reproduction strategies, and social learning theory provide further views of sexuality.[8] Socio-cultural aspects of sexuality include historical developments and religious beliefs. Examples of this include Jewish views on sexual pleasure within marriage and some views of other religions on avoidance of sexual pleasures.[3][pageneeded] Some cultures have been described as sexually repressive. The study of sexuality also includes human identity within social groups, sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs), and birth control methods.

Certain characteristics are believed to be innate in humans; these characteristics may be modified by the physical and social environment in which people interact.[9] Human sexuality is driven by genetics and mental activity. The sexual drive affects the development of personal identity and social activities.[10][11] An individual's normative, social, cultural, educational, and environmental characteristics moderate the sexual drive.[10] Two well-known schools in psychology took opposing positions in the nature-versus-nurture debate: the Psychoanalytic school led by Sigmund Freud and the Behaviorist school which traces its origins to John Locke.

Freud believed sexual drives are instinctive. He was a firm supporter of the nature argument; he said there are a large number of instincts but they are reduced into two broad groups: Eros (the life instinct), which comprises the self-preserving and erotic instincts, and Thanatos (the death instinct), which comprises instincts invoking aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty.[12] He gave sexual drives a centrality in human life, actions, and behaviors that had not been accepted before his proposal. His instinct theory said humans are driven from birth by the desire to acquire and enhance bodily pleasures, thus supporting the nature debate. Freud redefined the term sexuality to make it cover any form of pleasure that can be derived from the human body.[12] He also said pleasure lowers tension while displeasure raises it, influencing the sexual drive in humans. His developmentalist perspective was governed by inner forces, especially biological drives and maturation, and his view that humans are biologically inclined to seek sexual gratification demonstrates the nature side of the debate.[13] The nurture debate traces back to John Locke and his theory of the mind as a "tabula rasa" or blank slate. Later, behaviorists would apply this notion in support of the idea that the environment is where one develops one's sexual drives.[13]

Like other mammals, humans are dioecious, primarily composed of male or female sexes,[14] with a small proportion (around 1%) of intersex individuals, for whom sexual classification may not be as clear.[15][pageneeded] The biological aspects of humans' sexuality deal with the reproductive system, the sexual response cycle, and the factors that affect these aspects. They also deal with the influence of biological factors on other aspects of sexuality, such as organic and neurological responses,[16] heredity, hormonal issues, gender issues, and sexual dysfunction.[17][pageneeded]

Males and females are anatomically similar; this extends to some degree to the development of the reproductive system. As adults, they have different reproductive mechanisms that enable them to perform sexual acts and to reproduce. Men and women react to sexual stimuli in a similar fashion with minor differences. Women have a monthly reproductive cycle, whereas the male sperm production cycle is more continuous.[3][pageneeded]

The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This is a small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve cell bodies that receives input from the limbic system. Studies have shown that within lab animals, destruction of certain areas of the hypothalamus causes the elimination of sexual behavior.[citation needed] The hypothalamus is important because of its relationship to the pituitary gland, which lies beneath it. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus and itself. The four important sexual hormones are oxytocin, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone.[3][pageneeded] Oxytocin, sometimes referred to as the "love hormone,"[citation needed] is released in both sexes during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is achieved.[citation needed] Oxytocin has been suggested as critical to the thoughts and behaviors required to maintain close relationships.[18][19][verification needed] The hormone is also released in women when they give birth or are breastfeeding.[20] Both prolactin and oxytocin stimulate milk production in women.[citation needed] Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is responsible for ovulation in women, which acts by triggering egg maturity; in men it stimulates sperm production.[21] Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation, which is the release of a mature egg.[3][pageneeded]

Males also have both internal and external genitalia that are responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Production of spermatozoa (sperm) is also cyclic, but unlike the female ovulation cycle, the sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily.[3][pageneeded]

The male genitalia are the penis and the scrotum. The penis provides a passageway for sperm and urine. An average-sized flaccid penis is about 334 inches (9.5cm) in length and 115 inches (3.0cm) in diameter. When erect, the average penis is between 412 inches (11cm) to 6 inches (15cm) in length and 112 inches (3.8cm) in diameter. The penis's internal structures consist of the shaft, glans, and the root.[3][pageneeded]

The shaft of the penis consists of three cylindrical bodies of spongy tissue filled with blood vessels along its length. Two of these bodies lie side-by-side in the upper portion of the penis called corpora cavernosa. The third, called the corpus spongiosum, is a tube that lies centrally beneath the others and expands at the end to form the tip of the penis (glans).[22]

The raised rim at the border of the shaft and glans is called the corona. The urethra runs through the shaft, providing an exit for sperm and urine. The root consists of the expanded ends of the cavernous bodies, which fan out to form the crura and attach to the pubic bone and the expanded end of the spongy body (bulb). The root is surrounded by two muscles; the bulbocavernosus muscle and the ischiocavernosus muscle, which aid urination and ejaculation. The penis has a foreskin that typically covers the glans; this is sometimes removed by circumcision for medical, religious or cultural reasons.[3][pageneeded] In the scrotum, the testicles are held away from the body, one possible reason for this is so sperm can be produced in an environment slightly lower than normal body temperature.[23][24]

Male internal reproductive structures are the testicles, the duct system, the prostate and seminal vesicles, and the Cowper's gland.[3][pageneeded]

The testicles are the male gonads where sperm and male hormones are produced. Millions of sperm are produced daily in several hundred seminiferous tubules. Cells called the Leydig cells lie between the tubules; these produce hormones called androgens; these consist of testosterone and inhibin. The testicles are held by the spermatic cord, which is a tubelike structure containing blood vessels, nerves, the vas deferens, and a muscle that helps to raise and lower the testicles in response to temperature changes and sexual arousal, in which the testicles are drawn closer to the body.[3][pageneeded]

Sperm are transported through a four-part duct system. The first part of this system is the epididymis. The testicles converge to form the seminiferous tubules, coiled tubes at the top and back of each testicle. The second part of the duct system is the vas deferens, a muscular tube that begins at the lower end of the epididymis.[3][pageneeded] The vas deferens passes upward along the side of the testicles to become part of the spermatic cord.[22] The expanded end is the ampulla, which stores sperm before ejaculation. The third part of the duct system is the ejaculatory ducts, which are 1-inch (2.5cm)-long paired tubes that pass through the prostate gland, where semen is produced.[3][pageneeded] The prostate gland is a solid, chestnut-shaped organ that surrounds the first part of the urethra, which carries urine and semen.[3][pageneeded][22] Similar to the female G-spot, the prostate provides sexual stimulation and can lead to orgasm through anal sex.[26]

The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid that is mixed with sperm to create semen.[3][pageneeded] The prostate gland lies under the bladder and in front of the rectum. It consists of two main zones: the inner zone that produces secretions to keep the lining of the male urethra moist and the outer zone that produces seminal fluids to facilitate the passage of semen.[22] The seminal vesicles secrete fructose for sperm activation and mobilization, prostaglandins to cause uterine contractions that aid movement through the uterus, and bases that help neutralize the acidity of the vagina. The Cowper's glands, or bulbourethral glands, are two pea sized structures beneath the prostate.

The mons veneris, also known as the Mound of Venus, is a soft layer of fatty tissue overlaying the pubic bone.[27] Following puberty, this area grows in size. It has many nerve endings and is sensitive to stimulation.[3][pageneeded]

The labia minora and labia majora are collectively known as the lips. The labia majora are two elongated folds of skin extending from the mons to the perineum. Its outer surface becomes covered with hair after puberty. In between the labia majora are the labia minora, two hairless folds of skin that meet above the clitoris to form the clitoral hood, which is highly sensitive to touch. The labia minora become engorged with blood during sexual stimulation, causing them to swell and turn red.[3][pageneeded] The labia minora are composed of connective tissues that are richly supplied with blood vessels which cause the pinkish appearance. Near the anus, the labia minora merge with the labia majora.[28] In a sexually unstimulated state, the labia minora protects the vaginal and urethral opening by covering them.[29] At the base of the labia minora are the Bartholin's glands, which add a few drops of an alkaline fluid to the vagina via ducts; this fluid helps to counteract the acidity of the outer vagina since sperm cannot live in an acidic environment.[3][pageneeded]

The clitoris is developed from the same embryonic tissue as the penis; it or its glans alone consists of as many (or more in some cases) nerve endings as the human penis or glans penis, making it extremely sensitive to touch.[30][31][32] The clitoral glans, which is a small, elongated erectile structure, has only one known functionsexual sensations. It is the main source of orgasm in women.[33][34][35][36] Thick secretions called smegma collect in the clitoris.[3][pageneeded]

The vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when the labia minora are parted. These opening have many nerve endings that make them sensitive to touch. They are surrounded by a ring of sphincter muscles called the bulbocavernosus muscle. Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs, which help the vagina grip the penis by swelling with blood during arousal. Within the vaginal opening is the hymen, a thin membrane that partially covers the opening in many virgins. Rupture of the hymen has been historically considered the loss of one's virginity, though by modern standards, loss of virginity is considered to be the first sexual intercourse. The hymen can be ruptured by activities other than sexual intercourse. The urethral opening connects to the bladder with the urethra; it expels urine from the bladder. This is located below the clitoris and above the vaginal opening.[3][pageneeded]

The breasts are external organs used for sexual pleasure in some cultures. Western culture is one of the few in which they are considered erotic.[3][pageneeded] The breasts are the subcutaneous tissues on the front thorax of the female body.[28] Breasts are modified sweat glands made up of fibrous tissues and fat that provide support and contain nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels.[28] Their purpose is to provide milk to a developing infant. Breasts develop during puberty in response to an increase in estrogen. Each adult breast consists of 15 to 20 milk-producing mammary glands, irregularly shaped lobes that include alveolar glands and a lactiferous duct leading to the nipple. The lobes are separated by dense connective tissues that support the glands and attach them to the tissues on the underlying pectoral muscles.[28] Other connective tissue, which forms dense strands called suspensory ligaments, extends inward from the skin of the breast to the pectoral tissue to support the weight of the breast.[28] Heredity and the quantity of fatty tissue determine the size of the breasts.[3][pageneeded]

The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The vagina is a sheath-like canal that extends from the vulva to the cervix. It receives the penis during intercourse and serves as a depository for sperm. The vagina is also the birth canal; it can expand to 10 centimetres (3.9in) during labor and delivery. The vagina is located between the bladder and the rectum. The vagina is normally collapsed, but during sexual arousal it opens, lengthens, and produces lubrication to allow the insertion of the penis. The vagina has three layered walls; it is a self-cleaning organ with natural bacteria that suppress the production of yeast.[3][pageneeded] The G-spot, named after the Ernst Grfenberg who first reported it in 1950, may be located in the front wall of the vagina and may cause orgasms. This area may vary in size and location between women; in some it may be absent. Various researchers dispute its structure or existence, or regard it as an extension of the clitoris.[38][39][40]

The uterus or womb is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg (ovum) will implant itself and grow into a fetus.[3][pageneeded] The uterus lies in the pelvic cavity between the bladder and the bowel, and above the vagina. It is usually positioned in a 90-degree angle tilting forward, although in about 20% of women it tilts backwards.[28] The uterus has three layers; the innermost layer is the endometrium, where the egg is implanted. During ovulation, this thickens for implantation. If implantation does not occur, it is sloughed off during menstruation. The cervix is the narrow end of the uterus. The broad part of the uterus is the fundus.[3][pageneeded]

During ovulation, the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. These extend about four inches (10cm) from both sides of the uterus. Finger-like projections at the ends of the tubes brush the ovaries and receive the ovum once it is released. The ovum then travels for three to four days to the uterus.[3][pageneeded] After sexual intercourse, sperm swim up this funnel from the uterus. The lining of the tube and its secretions sustain the egg and the sperm, encouraging fertilization and nourishing the ovum until it reaches the uterus. If the ovum divides after fertilization, identical twins are produced. If separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm, the mother gives birth to non-identical or fraternal twins.[28]

The ovaries are the female gonads; they develop from the same embryonic tissue as the testicles. The ovaries are suspended by ligaments and are the source where ova are stored and developed before ovulation. The ovaries also produce female hormones progesterone and estrogen. Within the ovaries, each ovum is surrounded by other cells and contained within a capsule called a primary follicle. At puberty, one or more of these follicles are stimulated to mature on a monthly basis. Once matured, these are called Graafian follicles.[3][pageneeded] The female reproductive system does not produce the ova; about 60,000 ova are present at birth, only 400 of which will mature during the woman's lifetime.[28]

Ovulation is based on a monthly cycle; the 14th day is the most fertile. On days one to four, menstruation and production of estrogen and progesterone decreases, and the endometrium starts thinning. The endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once menstruation ends, the cycle begins again with an FSH surge from the pituitary gland. Days five to thirteen are known as the pre-ovulatory stage. During this stage, the pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). A negative feedback loop is enacted when estrogen is secreted to inhibit the release of FSH. Estrogen thickens the endometrium of the uterus. A surge of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) triggers ovulation. On day 14, the LH surge causes a Graafian follicle to surface the ovary. The follicle ruptures and the ripe ovum is expelled into the abdominal cavity. The fallopian tubes pick up the ovum with the fimbria. The cervical mucus changes to aid the movement of sperm. On days 15 to 28the post-ovulatory stage, the Graafian folliclenow called the corpus luteumsecretes estrogen. Production of progesterone increases, inhibiting LH release. The endometrium thickens to prepare for implantation, and the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the ovum is not fertilized and does not implant, menstruation begins.[3][pageneeded]

The sexual response cycle is a model that describes the physiological responses that occur during sexual activity. This model was created by William Masters and Virginia Johnson. According to Masters and Johnson, the human sexual response cycle consists of four phases; excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. During the excitement phase, one attains the intrinsic motivation to have sex. The plateau phase is the precursor to orgasm, which may be mostly biological for men and mostly psychological for women. Orgasm is the release of tension, and the resolution period is the unaroused state before the cycle begins again.[3][pageneeded]

The male sexual response cycle starts in the excitement phase; two centers in the spine are responsible for erections. Vasoconstriction in the penis begins, the heart rate increases, the scrotum thickens, the spermatic cord shortens, and the testicles become engorged with blood. In the plateau phase, the penis increases in diameter, the testicles become more engorged, and the Cowper's glands secrete pre-seminal fluid. The orgasm phase, during which rhythmic contractions occur every 0.8 seconds[verification needed], consists of two phases; the emission phase, in which contractions of the vas deferens, prostate, and seminal vesicles encourage ejaculation, which is the second phase of orgasm. Ejaculation is called the expulsion phase; it cannot be reached without an orgasm. In the resolution phase, the male is now in an unaroused state consisting of a refactory (rest) period before the cycle can begin. This rest period may increase with age.[3][pageneeded]

The female sexual response begins with the excitement phase, which can last from several minutes to several hours. Characteristics of this phase include increased heart and respiratory rate, and an elevation of blood pressure. Flushed skin or blotches of redness may occur on the chest and back; breasts increase slightly in size and nipples may become hardened and erect. The onset of vasocongestion results in swelling of the clitoris, labia minora, and vagina. The muscle that surrounds the vaginal opening tightens and the uterus elevates and grows in size. The vaginal walls begin to produce a lubricating liquid. The second phase, called the plateau phase, is characterized primarily by the intensification of the changes begun during the excitement phase. The plateau phase extends to the brink of orgasm, which initiates the resolution stage; the reversal of the changes begun during the excitement phase. During the orgasm stage the heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and breathing rates peak. The pelvic muscle near the vagina, the anal sphincter, and the uterus contract. Muscle contractions in the vaginal area create a high level of pleasure, though all orgasms are centered in the clitoris.[3][pageneeded][41][42][43]

From rodent to human, the corticalization of the brain induces several changes in the control of sexual behavior, including lordosis behavior. These changes induce a difference between the stereotyped sexual behaviors in non-human mammals and the astounding variety of human sexual behaviors.[44]

Sexual reflexes, such as the motor reflex of lordosis, become secondary. In particular, lordosis behavior, which is a motor reflex complex and essential to carry out copulation in non-primate mammals (rodents, canines, bovids ...), is apparently no longer functional in women. Sexual stimuli on women do not trigger any more neither immobilization nor the reflex position of lordosis. On the level of olfactory systems, the vomeronasal organ is altered in hominids[48] and 90% of the pheromone receptor genes become pseudogenes in humans.[45] Concerning hormonal control, sexual activities are gradually dissociated from hormonal cycles. Human can have sex anytime during the year and hormonal cycles. On the contrary, the importance of rewards / reinforcements and cognition became major. Especially in humans, the extensive development of the neocortex allows the emergence of culture, which has a major influence on behavior.[49] For all these reasons, the dynamics of sexual behavior was modified.[44][46][47]

In human beings, sexuality is multifactorial, with several factors that interact (genes, hormones, conditioning, sexual preferences, emotions, cognitive processes, cultural context). The relative importance of each of these factors is dependent both on individual physiological characteristics, personal experience and aspects of the sociocultural environment.[47]

Sexual disorders, according to the DSM-IV-TR, are disturbances in sexual desire and psycho-physiological changes that characterize the sexual response cycle and cause marked distress, and interpersonal difficulty. The sexual dysfunctions is a result of physical or psychological disorders. The physical causes include, hormonal imbalance, diabetes, heart disease and more. The psychological causes includes but are not limited to, stress, anxiety, and depression.[50] The sexual dysfunction affects men and women. There are four major categories of sexual problems for women: desire disorders, arousal disorders, orgasmic disorders, and sexual pain disorders.[3][pageneeded] The sexual desire disorder occurs when an individual lacks the sexual desire because of hormonal changes, depression, and pregnancy.The arousal disorder is a female sexual dysfunction. Arousal disorder means lack of vaginal lubrication. In addition, blood flow problems may affect arousal disorder. Lack of orgasm, also known as, anorgasmia is another sexual dysfunction in women. The anorgasmia occurs in women with psychological disorders such as guilt and anxiety that was caused by sexual assault. The last sexual disorder is the painful intercourse. The sexual disorder can be result of pelvic mass, scar tissue, sexually transmitted disease and more.[51] There are also three common sexual disorders for men including, sexual desire, ejaculation disorder, and erectile dysfunction. The lack of sexual desire in men is because of loss of libido, low testosterone. There are also psychological factors such as anxiety, and depression.[52] The ejaculation disorder has three types, Retrograde ejaculation, retarded ejaculation, premature ejaculation. The erectile dysfunction is a disability to have and maintain an erection during intercourse.[53]

Sexuality in humans generates profound emotional and psychological responses. Some theorists identify sexuality as the central source of human personality.[54] Psychological studies of sexuality focus on psychological influences that affect sexual behavior and experiences.[17][pageneeded] Early psychological analyses were carried out by Sigmund Freud, who believed in a psychoanalytic approach. He also proposed the concepts of psychosexual development and the Oedipus complex, among other theories.[55][bettersourceneeded]

Gender identity is a person's sense of self-identification as female, male, both, neither, or somewhere in between. The social construction of gender has been discussed by many scholars, including Judith Butler. More recent research has focused upon the influence of feminist theory and courtship.[56][57]

Sexual behavior and intimate relationships are strongly influenced by a person's sexual orientation.[58] Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex, same sex, or both sexes.[58] Heterosexual people are romantically/sexually attracted to the members of the opposite sex, gay and lesbian people are romantically/sexually attracted to people of the same sex, and those who are bisexual are romantically/sexually attracted to both sexes.[1][clarification needed]

Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been ignored or tolerated by the Christian church.[59] During the 12th century, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th century, it was viewed as a pathology.[59]Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances; Ellis said homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral, not a disease, and that many homosexuals made significant contributions to society.[59] Freud wrote that all human beings as capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual; neither orientation was assumed to be innate.[60][pageneeded] According to Freud, a person's orientation depended on the resolution of the Oedipus complex. He said male homosexuality resulted when a young boy had an authoritarian, rejecting mother and turned to his father for love and affection, and later to men in general. He said female homosexuality developed when a girl loved her mother and identified with her father, and became fixated at that stage.[60][pageneeded]

Freud and Ellis said homosexuality resulted from reversed gender roles. In the early 21st century, this view is reinforced by the media's portrayal of male homosexuals as effeminate and female homosexuals as masculine.[60][pageneeded] A person's conformity or non-conformity to gender stereotypes does not always predict sexual orientation. Society believes that if a man is masculine he is heterosexual, and if a man is feminine he is homosexual. There is no strong evidence that a homosexual or bisexual orientation must be associated with atypical gender roles. By the early 21st century, homosexuality was no longer considered to be a pathology. Theories have linked many factors, including genetic, anatomical, birth order, and hormones in the prenatal environment, to homosexuality.[60][pageneeded]

Other than the need to procreate, there are many other reasons people have sex. According to one study conducted on college students (Meston & Buss, 2007), the four main reasons for sexual activities are; physical attraction, as a means to an end, to increase emotional connection, and to alleviate insecurity.[61]

In the past[when?], children were often assumed not to have sexuality until later development. Sigmund Freud was one of the first researchers to take child sexuality seriously. His ideas, such as psychosexual development and the Oedipus conflict, have been much debated but acknowledging the existence of child sexuality was an important development.[62] Freud gave sexual drives an importance and centrality in human life, actions, and behavior; he said sexual drives exist and can be discerned in children from birth. He explains this in his theory of infantile sexuality, and says sexual energy (libido) is the most important motivating force in adult life. Freud wrote about the importance of interpersonal relationships to one's sexual and emotional development. From birth, the mother's connection to the infant affects the infant's later capacity for pleasure and attachment.[63] Freud described two currents of emotional life; an affectionate current, including our bonds with the important people in our lives; and a sensual current, including our wish to gratify sexual impulses. During adolescence, a young person tries to integrate these two emotional currents.[64]

Alfred Kinsey also examined child sexuality in his Kinsey Reports. Children are naturally curious about their bodies and sexual functions. For example, they wonder where babies come from, they notice the differences between males and females, and many engage in genital play, which is often mistaken for masturbation. Child sex play, also known as playing doctor, includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Many children take part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends.[62] Sex play with others usually decreases as children grow, but they may later possess romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain high during these years, but the main surge in sexual interest occurs in adolescence.[62]

Adult sexuality originates in childhood. However, like many other human capacities, sexuality is not fixed, but matures and develops. A common stereotype associated with old people is that they tend to lose interest and the ability to engage in sexual acts once they reach late adulthood. This misconception is reinforced by Western popular culture, which often ridicules older adults who try to engage in sexual activities. Age does not necessarily change the need or desire to be sexually expressive or active. A couple in a long-term relationship may find that the frequency of their sexual activity decreases over time and the type of sexual expression may change, but many couples experience increased intimacy and love.[65]

Human sexuality can be understood as part of the social life of humans, which is governed by implied rules of behavior and the status quo. This narrows the view to groups within a society.[17][pageneeded] The socio-cultural context of society, including the effects of politics and the mass media, influences and forms social norms. Before the early 21st century, people fought for their civil rights. The civil rights movements helped to bring about massive changes in social norms; examples include the sexual revolution and the rise of feminism.[68][69]

The link between constructed sexual meanings and racial ideologies has been studied. Sexual meanings are constructed to maintain racial-ethnic-national boundaries by denigration of "others" and regulation of sexual behavior within the group. According to Joane Nagel, "both adherence to and deviation from such approved behaviors, define and reinforce racial, ethnic, and nationalist regimes".[70][71] Scholars also study the ways in which colonialism has effected sexuality today and argue that due to racism and slavery it has been dramatically changed from the way it had previously been understood.[72] These changes to sexuality are argued to be largely effected by the enforcement of the gender binary and heteropatriarchy as tools of colonization on colonized communities as seen in nations such as India, Samoa, and the First Nations in the Americas, resulting in the deaths and erasure of non-western genders and sexualities. In the United States people of color face the effects of colonialism in different ways with stereotypes such as the Mammy, and Jezabel for Black women; lotus blossom, and dragon lady for Asian women; and the "spicy" Latina.[73]

The age and manner in which children are informed of issues of sexuality is a matter of sex education. The school systems in almost all developed countries have some form of sex education, but the nature of the issues covered varies widely. In some countries, such as Australia and much of Europe, age-appropriate sex education often begins in pre-school, whereas other countries leave sex education to the pre-teenage and teenage years.[74] Sex education covers a range of topics, including the physical, mental, and social aspects of sexual behavior. Geographic location also plays a role in society's opinion of the appropriate age for children to learn about sexuality. According to TIME magazine and CNN,[full citation needed] 74% of teenagers in the United States reported that their major sources of sexual information were their peers and the media, compared to 10% who named their parents or a sex education course.[3][pageneeded]

In some religions, sexual behavior is regarded as primarily spiritual. In others it is treated as primarily physical. Some hold that sexual behavior is only spiritual within certain kinds of relationships, when used for specific purposes, or when incorporated into religious ritual. In some religions there are no distinctions between the physical and the spiritual, whereas some religions view human sexuality as a way of completing the gap that exists between the spiritual and the physical.[75]

Many religious conservatives, especially those of Abrahamic religions and Christianity in particular, tend to view sexuality in terms of behavior (i.e. homosexuality or heterosexuality is what someone does) and certain sexualities such as bisexuality tend to be ignored as a result of this.[citation needed] These conservatives tend to promote celibacy for gay people, and may also tend to believe that sexuality can be changed through conversion therapy[76] or prayer to become an ex-gay. They may also see homosexuality as a form of mental illness, something that ought to be criminalised, an immoral abomination, caused by ineffective parenting, and view same-sex marriage as a threat to society.[77]

On the other hand, most religious liberals define sexuality-related labels in terms of sexual attraction and self-identification.[76] They may also view same-sex activity as morally neutral and legally acceptable as opposite-sex activity, unrelated to mental illness, genetically or environmentally caused (but not as the result of bad parenting), and fixed. They also tend to be more in favor of same-sex marriage.[77]

According to Judaism, sex between man and woman within marriage is sacred and should be enjoyed; celibacy is considered sinful.[3][pageneeded]

The Roman Catholic Church teaches that sexuality is "noble and worthy"[78] but that it must be used in accordance with natural law. For this reason, all sexual activity must occur in the context of a marriage between a man and a woman, and must not be divorced from the possibility of conception. All forms of sex without the possibility of conception are considered intrinsically disordered and sinful, such as the use of contraceptives, masturbation, and homosexual acts.[79]

In Islam, sexual desire is considered to be a natural urge that should not be suppressed, although the concept of free sex is not accepted; these urges should be fulfilled responsibly. Marriage is considered to be a good deed; it does not hinder spiritual wayfaring. The term used for marriage within the Quran is nikah, which literally means sexual intercourse. Although Islamic sexuality is restrained via Islamic sexual jurisprudence, it emphasizes sexual pleasure within marriage. It is acceptable for a man to have more than one wife, but he must take care of those wives physically, mentally, emotionally, financially, and spiritually.[80][full citation needed] Muslims believe that sexual intercourse is an act of worship that fulfils emotional and physical needs, and that producing children is one way in which humans can contribute to God's creation, and Islam discourages celibacy once an individual is married. However, homosexuality is strictly forbidden in Islam, and some Muslim lawyers have suggested that gay people should be put to death.[81] On the other hand, some have argued that Islam has an open and playful approach to sex[82][83] so long as it is within marriage, free of lewdness, fornication and adultery. For many Muslims, sex with reference to the Quran indicates that bar anal intercourse and adultery a Muslim marital home bonded by Nikah marital contract between husband and his wife(s) should enjoy and even indulge, within the privacy of their marital home, in limitless scope of heterosexual sexual acts within a monogamous or polygamous marriage.[84]

Hinduism emphasizes that sex is only appropriate between husband and wife, in which satisfying sexual urges through sexual pleasure is an important duty of marriage. Any sex before marriage is considered to interfere with intellectual development, especially between birth and the age of 25, which is said to be brahmacharya and this should be avoided. Kama (sensual pleasures) is one of the four purusharthas or aims of life (dharma, artha, kama, and moksha).[85] The Hindu Kama Sutra deals partially with sexual intercourse; it is not exclusively a sexual or religious work.[86][87][88]

Sikhism views chastity as important, as Sikhs believe that the divine spark of Waheguru is present inside every individual's body, therefore it is important for one to keep clean and pure. Sexual activity is limited to married couples, and extramarital sex is forbidden. Marriage is seen as a commitment to Waheguru and should be viewed as part of spiritual companionship, rather than just sexual intercourse, and monogamy is deeply emphasised in Sikhism. Any other way of living is discouraged, including celibacy and homosexuality. However, in comparison to other religions, the issue of sexuality in Sikhism is not considered one of paramount importance.[89]

Sexuality has been an important, vital part of human existence throughout history.[90][pageneeded] All civilizations have managed sexuality through sexual standards, representations, and behavior.[90][pageneeded]

Before the rise of agriculture, groups of hunter/gatherers (H/G) and nomads inhabited the world. Within these groups, some implications of male dominance existed, but there were signs that women were active participants in sexuality, with bargaining power of their own. These hunter/gatherers had less restrictive sexual standards that emphasized sexual pleasure and enjoyment, but with definite rules and constraints. Some underlying continuities or key regulatory standards contended with the tension between recognition of pleasure, interest, and the need to procreate for the sake of social order and economic survival. H/G groups also placed high value on certain types of sexual symbolism. Two common tensions in H/G societies are expressed in their art, which emphasizes male sexuality and prowess, with equally common tendencies to blur gender lines in sexual matters. One example of these male-dominated portrayals is the Egyptian creation myth, in which the sun god Atum masturbates in the water, creating the Nile River. In Sumerian myth, the Gods' semen filled the Tigris.[90][pageneeded]

Once agricultural societies emerged, the sexual framework shifted in ways that persisted for many millennia in much of Asia, Africa, Europe, and parts of the Americas. One common characteristic new to these societies was the collective supervision of sexual behavior due to urbanization, and the growth of population and population density. Children would commonly witness parents having sex because many families shared the same sleeping quarters. Due to landownership, determination of children's paternity became important, and society and family life became patriarchal. These changes in sexual ideology were used to control female sexuality and to differentiate standards by gender. With these ideologies, sexual possessiveness and increases in jealousy emerged. With the domestication of animals, new opportunities for bestiality arose. Males mostly performed these types of sexual acts and many societies acquired firm rules against it. These acts also explain the many depictions of half-human, half-animal mythical creatures, and the sports of gods and goddesses with animals.[90] While retaining the precedents of earlier civilizations, each classical civilization established a somewhat distinctive approach to gender, artistic expression of sexual beauty, and to behaviors such as homosexuality. Some of these distinctions are portrayed in sex manuals, which were also common among civilizations in China, Greece, Rome, Persia, and India; each has its own sexual history.[90][pageneeded]

During the beginning of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, many changes in sexual standards occurred. New, dramatic, artificial birth control devices such as the condom and diaphragm were introduced. Doctors started claiming a new role in sexual matters, urging that their advice was crucial to sexual morality and health. New pornographic industries grew and Japan adopted its first laws against homosexuality. In western societies, the definition of homosexuality was constantly changing; western influence on other cultures became more prevalent. New contacts created serious issues around sexuality and sexual traditions. There were also major shifts in sexual behavior. During this period, puberty began occurring at younger ages, so a new focus on adolescence as a time of sexual confusion and danger emerged. There was a new focus on the purpose of marriage; it was increasing regarded as being for love rather than only for economics and reproduction.[90][pageneeded]

Alfred Kinsey initiated the modern era of sex research. He collected data from questionnaires given to his students at Indiana University, but then switched to personal interviews about sexual behaviors. Kinsey and his colleagues sampled 5,300 men and 5,940 women. He found that most people masturbated, that many engaged in oral sex, that women are capable of having multiple orgasms, and that many men had had some type of homosexual experience in their lifetimes. Many[who?] believe he was the major influence in changing 20th century attitudes about sex. Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction at Indiana University continues to be a major center for the study of human sexuality.[3][pageneeded] Before William Masters, a physician, and Virginia Johnson, a behavioral scientist, the study of anatomy and physiological studies of sex was still limited to experiments with laboratory animals. Masters and Johnson started to directly observe and record the physical responses in humans that are engaged in sexual activity under laboratory settings. They observed 10,000 episodes of sexual acts between 312 men and 382 women. This led to methods of treating clinical problems and abnormalities. Masters and Johnson opened the first sex therapy clinic in 1965. In 1970, they described their therapeutic techniques in their book, Human Sexual Inadequacy.[full citation needed][3][pageneeded]

Reproductive and sexual rights encompass the concept of applying human rights to issues related to reproduction and sexuality.[91] This concept is a modern one, and remains controversial, especially outside the West, since it deals, directly and indirectly, with issues such as contraception, LGBT rights, abortion, sex education, freedom to choose a partner, freedom to decide whether to be sexually active or not, right to bodily integrity, freedom to decide whether or not, and when, to have children.[92][93][94] According to the Swedish government, "sexual rights include the right of all people to decide over their own bodies and sexuality" and "reproductive rights comprise the right of individuals to decide on the number of children they have and the intervals at which they are born."[95] Such rights are not accepted in all cultures, with practices such criminalization of consensual sexual activities (such as those related to homosexual acts and sexual acts outside marriage), acceptance of forced marriage and child marriage, failure to criminalize all non-consensual sexual encounters (such as marital rape), female genital mutilation, or restricted availability of contraception, being common around the world.[96][97]

In humans, sexual intercourse and sexual activity in general have been shown to have health benefits, such as an improved sense of smell,[citation needed]stress and blood pressure reduction,[98][99] increased immunity,[100] and decreased risk of prostate cancer.[101][102][103] Sexual intimacy and orgasms increase levels of oxytocin, which helps people bond and build trust.[104][105][106] A long-term study of 3,500 people between ages 30 and 101 by clinical neuropsychologist David Weeks, MD, head of old-age psychology at the Royal Edinburgh Hospital in Scotland, said he found that "sex helps you look between four and seven years younger", according to impartial ratings of the subjects' photographs. Exclusive causation, however, is unclear, and the benefits may be indirectly related to sex and directly related to significant reductions in stress, greater contentment, and better sleep that sex promotes.[107][108][109]

Sexual intercourse can also be a disease vector.[110] There are 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) every year in the U.S.,[111] and worldwide there are over 340 million STD infections each year.[112] More than half of these occur in adolescents and young adults aged 1524 years.[113] At least one in four U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease.[111][114] In the U.S., about 30% of 15- to 17-year-olds have had sexual intercourse, but only about 80% of 15- to 19-year-olds report using condoms for their first sexual intercourse.[115] In one study, more than 75% of young women age 1825 years felt they were at low risk of acquiring an STD.[116]

People both consciously and subconsciously seek to attract others with whom they can form deep relationships. This may be for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship. This involves interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting one or more partners and maintaining sexual interest, can include:

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Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest.[123][124] Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract the sexual or erotic interest of another person, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context in which they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics or movements or to their voice or smell, besides other factors. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume, hair length and style, and anything else which can attract the sexual interest of another person. It can also be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities of the person. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and also on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness, and measure it as one of several bodily forms of capital asset (see erotic capital), a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception, and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other sex. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. In addition, there are asexual people, who usually do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or heteroromantic). Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity or possessing a preponderance of common or familiar features, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.[125]

The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, music video, pornography, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling, sex work and other occupations.

Globally, laws regulate human sexuality in several ways, including criminalizing particular sexual behaviors, granting individuals the privacy or autonomy to make their own sexual decisions, protecting individuals with regard to equality and non-discrimination, recognizing and protecting other individual rights, as well as legislating matters regarding marriage and the family, and creating laws protecting individuals from violence, harassment, and persecution.[126]

In the United States, there are two fundamentally different approaches, applied in different states, regarding the way the law is used to attempt to govern a person's sexuality. The black letter approach to law focuses on the study of pre-existing legal precedent, and attempts to offer a clear framework of rules within which lawyers and others can work.[126] In contrast, the socio-legal approach focuses more broadly on the relationship between the law and society, and offers a more contextualized view of the relationship between legal and social change.[126] Both approaches are used to guide changes in the legal system of states, and both have an effect.[citation needed]

Issues regarding human sexuality and human sexual orientation have come to the forefront in Westerm law in the latter half of the twentieth century, as part of the gay liberation movement's encouragement of LGBT individuals to "come out of the closet" and engaging with the legal system, primarily through courts. Therefore, many issues regarding human sexuality and the law are found in the opinions of the courts.[127]

While the issue of privacy has been useful to sexual rights claims, some scholars have criticized its usefulness, saying that this perspective is too narrow and restrictive. The law is often slow to intervene in certain forms of coercive behavior that can limit individuals' control over their own sexuality (such as female genital mutilation, forced marriages or lack of access to reproductive health care). Many of these injustices are often perpetuated wholly or in part by private individuals rather than state agents, and as a result, there is an ongoing debate about the extent of state responsibility to prevent harmful practices and to investigate such practices when they do occur.[126]

State intervention with regards to sexuality also occurs, and is considered acceptable by some, in certain instances (e.g. same-sex sexual activity or prostitution).[126]

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