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physiology - the branch of the biological sciences dealing with the functioning of organisms accommodation - (physiology) the automatic adjustment in focal length of the natural lens of the eye adaptation - (physiology) the responsive adjustment of a sense organ (as the eye) to varying conditions (as of light) abduction - (physiology) moving of a body part away from the central axis of the body adduction - (physiology) moving of a body part toward the central axis of the body control - (physiology) regulation or maintenance of a function or action or reflex etc; "the timing and control of his movements were unimpaired"; "he had lost control of his sphincters" antagonistic muscle - (physiology) a muscle that opposes the action of another; "the biceps and triceps are antagonistic muscles" humour, humor - (Middle Ages) one of the four fluids in the body whose balance was believed to determine your emotional and physical state; "the humors are blood and phlegm and yellow and black bile" neurophysiology - the branch of neuroscience that studies the physiology of the nervous system hemodynamics - the branch of physiology that studies the circulation of the blood and the forces involved kinesiology - the branch of physiology that studies the mechanics and anatomy in relation to human movement myology - the branch of physiology that studies muscles irradiation - (physiology) the spread of sensory neural impulses in the cortex cell death, necrobiosis - (physiology) the normal degeneration and death of living cells (as in various epithelial cells) acid-base balance, acid-base equilibrium - (physiology) the normal equilibrium between acids and alkalis in the body; "with a normal acid-base balance in the body the blood is slightly alkaline" autoregulation - (physiology) processes that maintain a generally constant physiological state in a cell or organism inhibition - (physiology) the process whereby nerves can retard or prevent the functioning of an organ or part; "the inhibition of the heart by the vagus nerve" nutrition - (physiology) the organic process of nourishing or being nourished; the processes by which an organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and maintenance relaxation - (physiology) the gradual lengthening of inactive muscle or muscle fibers stimulation - (physiology) the effect of a stimulus (on nerves or organs etc.) summation - (physiology) the process whereby multiple stimuli can produce a response (in a muscle or nerve or other part) that one stimulus alone does not produce homeostasis - (physiology) metabolic equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting changes innervate - stimulate to action; "innervate a muscle or a nerve" irritate - excite to some characteristic action or condition, such as motion, contraction, or nervous impulse, by the application of a stimulus; "irritate the glands of a leaf" abducent, abducting - especially of muscles; drawing away from the midline of the body or from an adjacent part adducent, adducting, adductive - especially of muscles; bringing together or drawing toward the midline of the body or toward an adjacent part afferent - of nerves and nerve impulses; conveying sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS; "afferent nerves"; "afferent impulses" efferent, motorial - of nerves and nerve impulses; conveying information away from the CNS; "efferent nerves and impulses" isometric - of or involving muscular contraction in which tension increases while length remains constant isotonic - of or involving muscular contraction in which tension is constant while length changes voluntary - controlled by individual volition; "voluntary motions"; "voluntary muscles" involuntary - controlled by the autonomic nervous system; without conscious control; "involuntary muscles"; "gave an involuntary start" pressor - increasing (or tending to increase) blood pressure; "pressor reflexes" tonic - of or relating to or producing normal tone or tonus in muscles or tissue; "a tonic reflex"; "tonic muscle contraction" sympathetic - of or relating to the sympathetic nervous system; "sympathetic neurons"; "sympathetic stimulation"
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Physiology - definition of physiology by The Free Dictionary
physiology [fize-olo-je]
1. the science that treats of the functions of the living organism and its parts, and of the physical and chemical factors and processes involved.
2. the basic processes underlying the functioning of a species or class of organism, or any of its parts or processes.
cell physiology the scientific study of phenomena involved in cell growth and maintenance, self-regulation and division of cells, interactions between nucleus and cytoplasm, and general behavior of protoplasm.
morbid physiology (pathologic physiology) the study of disordered functions or of function in diseased tissues.
The science concerned with the normal vital processes of animal and vegetable organisms, especially as to how things normally function in the living organism rather than to their anatomic structure, their biochemical composition, or how they are affected by drugs or disease.
[L. or G. physiologia, fr. G. physis, nature, + logos, study]
1. the science which treats of the functions of the living organism and its parts, and of the physical and chemical factors and processes involved.
2. the basic processes underlying the functioning of a species or class of organism, or any of its parts or processes.
morbid physiology, pathologic physiology the study of disordered function or of function in diseased tissues.
1. The biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts.
2. All the functions of a living organism or any of its parts.
physiologist n.
Etymology: Gk, physis + logos, science
1 the study of the processes and function of the human body.
The science concerned with the normal vital processes of animal and vegetable organisms, especially as to how things normally function in the living organism rather than as to their anatomic structure, their biochemical composition, or how they are affected by drugs or disease.
[L. or G. physiologia, fr. G. physis, nature, + logos, study]
n in biological sciences, study concerned with the processes and functioning of organisms.
Science concerned with normal vital processes of organisms, especially as to how things normally function in living organism rather than to their anatomic structure.
[L. or G. physiologia, fr. G. physis, nature, + logos, study]
n the study of tissue and organism behavior. The physiologic process is a dynamic state of tissue as compared with the static state of descriptive morphology (anatomy). Physiology is differentiated from descriptive morphology by the following qualifying properties: rate, direction, and magnitude. Physiologic processes are thus morphologic alterations in the three dimensions of space associated with a temporary (time) sequence. Physiologic processes relate to a wide spectrum of life activities on three levels: biochemical and biophysical activity of a subcellular nature, the activity of cells and tissues aggregated into organ systems, and multiorgan system activity as expressed in human behavior.
n the physiology related to clinical manifestations in the normal and abnormal behavior of oral structures. The principal clinical functions in which the oral structures participate are deglutition, mastication, respiration, speech, and head posture.
1. the science which deals with the functions of the living organism and its parts, and of the physical and chemical factors and processes involved.
2. the basic processes underlying the functioning of a species or class of organism, or any of its parts or processes.
the scientific study of phenomena involved in cell growth and maintenance, self-regulation and division of cells, interactions between nucleus and cytoplasm, and general behavior of protoplasm.
the study of disordered functions or of function in diseased tissues.
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Physiology (; from Ancient Greek (physis), meaning "nature, origin", and - (-logia), meaning "study of"[1]) is the scientific study of the normal function in living systems.[2] A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system.[3] Given the size of the field it is divided into, among others, animal physiology (including that of human), plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology (see microbial metabolism), bacterial physiology, and viral physiology.[3]Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a physiologic state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically, which is centered on the abnormalities that occur in animal diseases, including humans.[4]
Physiological studies date back to ancient civilizations of India,[5][6] Egypt alongside anatomical studies but did not utilize dissections and vivisection.[7] The study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the "father of medicine."[8] Hippocrates incorporated his belief system called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour: black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry.[9] Claudius Galenus (c. ~130200AD), known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body.[10] His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates idea that emotions were also tied to the humours, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth.[10] To top it off, Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.[11] And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.[10]
Jean Fernel (14971558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".[12]
In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (18131878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated."[13] In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. It should be noted that, William Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application of physiology.
Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The American Physiological Society, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks.[citation needed] In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected Ida Hyde as the first female member of the society.[citation needed] Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education,[14] attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine.
Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The Society of Physiology, which had been founded in 1876.[citation needed] On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted into The Society. These six included Florence Buchanan, Winifred Cullis, Ruth C. Skelton, Sarah C. M. Sowton, Constance Leetham Terry, and Enid M. Tribe.[15] Male members of The Society submitted each of these women for consideration and then voted on whether or not the women's accomplishments and potential merited membership in The Society.[15]
There have been and continue to be many prominent female physiologists, including but not limited too:
1858- Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.[4][22]
1891- Ivan Pavlov performed research on "conditional reflexes" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli.[22]
In the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[23] Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.[24]
1910 August Krogh, in 1920 won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated.[22]
1954- Andre Huxley and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in skeletal muscle, known today as the sliding filament theory.[22]
Today, and times before, physiologists continuously trying to find answers to important questions concerning how populations interact, the environment on earth, and in single cell functions.[4]
There are many ways to categorize the subdiscplines of physiology:[25]
Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning,[3] through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.[citation needed]
Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation. Physiology is the study of function and is closely related to anatomy which is the study of form and structure. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.[citation needed]
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Physiology (Greek , physis, meaning "nature") can refer either to the parts or functions (mechanical, physical, and biochemical) of living organisms, or to the branch of biology that deals with the study of all the parts of living organisms and their various functions.
Since the function of a part is related to its structure, physiology naturally is related to anatomy, a term that can refer either to the internal structure and organization of an organism or any of its parts, or to the branch of biology that studies the internal structure and organization of living things.
Since the dawn of civilization, human beings have had a curiosity about nature and about the human body. In their efforts to better understand the mysteries of life, one key area is physiology. Most fields of biological endeavorbotany, zoology, embryology, cytology, etc.include a study of function and thus of physiology. The science of medicine is particularly tied to the study of human physiology.
Physiology has traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells.
The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human animal species. Plant physiology borrows techniques from both fields. Physiology's scope of subjects is at least as diverse as the tree of life itself. Due to this diversity of subjects, research in animal physiology tends to concentrate on understanding how physiological traits changed throughout the history of animals.
Other major branches of scientific study with roots grounded in physiology research include biochemistry, biophysics, paleobiology, biomechanics, and pharmacology.
The history of physiology can be traced back at least as far as Greek natural philosophy. The study of anatomy, traced in history of anatomy reveals some of the early history of human physiology, as the study of human anatomy revealed functions as well.
In the eighth century C.E., it was Abu Bakr Al Razi (popularly known as Rhazes), a Persian physician and philosopher who described certain physiological parameters when he went to establish a hospital at Baghdad. Razi was followed by Al Kindi, who wrote a treatise on human physiology.
Anatomist William Harvey described blood circulation in the seventeenth century, providing the beginning of experimental physiology.
Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as the father of physiology due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and his textbook Institutiones medicae (1708).
In the United States, the first physiology professorship was founded in 1789 at the College of Philadelphia, and in 1832, Robert Dunglison published the first comprehensive work on the subject, Human Physiology (Encyclopedia of American History, 2007). In 1833, William Beaumont published a classic work on digestive function.
Among areas that have show significant growth in the twentieth century are endocrinology (study of function of hormones) and neurobiology (study of function of nerve cells and the nervous system).
Human physiology is the most complex area in physiology. This area has several subdivisions that overlap with each other. Many animals have similar anatomy to humans and share many of these areas.
Plant physiology has differing subdivisions. For example, since plants do not have muscles and nerves, neither myophysiology nor neurophysiology applies.
All links retrieved April 27, 2015.
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Physiology,study of the functioning of living organisms, animal or plant, and of the functioning of their constituent tissues or cells.
The word physiology was first used by the Greeks around 600 bc to describe a philosophical inquiry into the nature of things. The use of the term with specific reference to vital activities of healthy humans, which began in the 16th century, also is applicable to many current aspects of physiology. In the 19th century, curiosity, medical necessity, and economic interest stimulated research concerning the physiology of all living organisms. Discoveries of unity of structure and functions common to ... (100 of 5,385 words)
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Historical Examples
In the early history of physiology there was, quite naturally, little or no thought given to the nature of proteolytic changes.
Another road through this chaos is provided by the physiology of speech.
In learning about the body, we have to study anatomy, physiology, and hygiene.
A study of the fundamental facts of physiology and methods of investigation.
I shall now mention a fact in the physiology of the Queen Bee, more singular than any which has yet been related.
Nor do I see any way in which this theory can be fought on grounds of physiology.
The science of physiology indicates most clearly its propriety and dignity.
British Dictionary definitions for physiology Expand
the branch of science concerned with the functioning of organisms
the processes and functions of all or part of an organism
Word Origin
C16: from Latin physiologia, from Greek
Word Origin and History for physiology Expand
1560s, "study and description of natural objects," from Middle French physiologie or directly from Latin physiologia "natural science, study of nature," from Greek physiologia "natural science, inquiry into nature," from physio- "nature" (see physio-) + logia "study" (see -logy). Meaning "science of the normal function of living things" is attested from 1610s. Related: Physiologic; physiologist.
physiology in Medicine Expand
physiology physiology (fz'-l'-j) n. Abbr. phys.
The biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts.
All the functions of a living organism or any of its parts.
physiology in Science Expand
physiology in Culture Expand
The study of the function of living things, including processes such as nutrition, movement, and reproduction. (Compare anatomy and morphology.)
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"Physiologies" redirects here. For other uses, see Physiology.
The human body includes the entire structure of a human being and comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet. Every part of the body is composed of various types of cells, the fundamental unit of life.[1]
At maturity, the estimated average number of cells in the body is given as 37.2 trillion. This number is stated to be of partial data and to be used as a starting point for further calculations. The number given is arrived at by totalling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types.[2] The composition of the human body is made up of a number of certain elements including carbon, calcium and phosphorus.
The study of the human body involves anatomy and physiology. The human body can show anatomical non-pathological anomalies known as variations which need to be able to be recognised. Physiology focuses on the systems and their organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis.
Skeletal structure frames the overall shape of the body and does not alter much over a lifetime. General body shape (and female body shape) is influenced by the distribution of muscle and fat tissue and is also affected by various hormones. The average height of an adult male human (in developed countries) is about 1.71.8m (5'7" to 5'11") and the adult female is about 1.61.7m (5'2" to 5'7"). Height is largely determined by genes and diet. Body type and body composition are influenced by factors such as genetics, diet, and exercise.
The human body has several body cavities the largest of which is the abdominopelvic cavity. These cavities house the various body organs including the spinal cord which also accommodates the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricular system of the brain.
Many other smaller cavities exist throughout the body called sinuses, which have varied functions. Sinuses in general usage refers to the paranasal sinuses which are involved in the condition sinusitis. The paranasal sinuses are four pairs of vital air-cavities in the cranial bones. These air-filled spaces are paired between the eyes, above the eyes, deeper behind the eyes and around the nasal cavity.
The average adult body contains between 5 and 5 litres of blood and approximately 10 litres of interstitial fluid.
The composition of the human body can be referred to in terms of its water content, elements content, tissue types or material types. The adult human body contains approximately 60% water, and so makes up a significant proportion of the body, both in terms of weight and volume. Water content can vary from a high 75% in a newborn infant to a lower 45% in an obese person. (These figures are necessarily statistical averages).
The vast majority of cells in the human body are not human at all; rather they are of bacteria, archaea, and methanogens such as Methanobrevibacter smithii. The largest proportion of these form the gut flora. The whole population of microbiota include microorganisms of the skin and other body parts and this altogether is termed as the human microbiome.
The proportions of the elements of the body can be referred to in terms of the main elements, minor ones and trace elements. Material type may also be referred to as including water, protein, connective tissue, fats, carbohydrates and bone.
Human anatomy (gr. , "dissection", from , "up", and , "cut") is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the human body.[3]Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy (histology)[3] Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by the naked eye.[3] Microscopic anatomy involves the use of microscopes to study minute anatomical structures, and is the field of histology which studies the organization of tissues at all levels, from cell biology (previously called cytology), to organs.[3]Anatomy, human physiology (the study of function), and biochemistry (the study of the chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical sciences,[4] that are generally taught together (or in tandem) to students studying medicine.
In some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology,[3] through common roots in evolution; for example, much of the human body maintains the ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic units being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and which can be traced from the somitogenesis stage in very early embryos.
Generally, physicians, dentists, physiotherapists, nurses, paramedics, radiographers, other health professionals, and students of certain biological sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures, and tutorials. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience in examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical and dental students generally also learn anatomy with practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers (corpses). A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required for all medical doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such as histopathology and radiology.
Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically;[3] that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching.[5][6]
In human anatomy, the term anatomical variation refers to a non-pathologic anatomic structure that is different from normal. The possible anatomic variations in each organ and its arterial and venous supply must be known by physicians, such as surgeons or radiologists, in order to identify them. Unlike congenital anomalies, anatomic variations are typically inconsequential and do not constitute a disorder. Accessory muscles are rare anatomical duplicates of muscle that can occur and only require treatment where function is impaired. The accessory soleus muscle in the ankle is one such variation and one which does not need to be rectified.[7][8] Another more common variation found in around ten per cent of the population is the accessory spleen.[9]
Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. Physiology focuses principally at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically related and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.
The study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology.
The human body consists of many interacting systems. Each system contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. A system consists of two or more organs, which are functional collections of tissue. Systems do not work in isolation, and the well-being of the person depends upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. Some combining systems are referred to by their joint names such as the nervous system and the endocrine system known together as the neuroendocrine system.
The term homeostasis refers to a system that regulates its internal environment and maintains a stable, relatively constant condition; such as maintaining an equal temperature, or acid balance pH. This is required for the body to function properly. Without a relatively constant pH, temperature, blood flow, and position, survival would be impossible.
Many interacting systems and mechanisms act to maintain the human's internal environment. The nervous system receives information from the body and transmits this to the brain via neurotransmitters. The endocrine system may release hormones to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Cell metabolism may help to maintain the blood's pH.
Anatomy has become a key part of the visual arts. Basic concepts of how muscles and bones function and change with movement are vital in drawing, painting or animating a human figure. Many books (such as "Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form") have been written as guides to drawing the human body anatomically correctly.[14]Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve his art through a better understanding of human anatomy. In the process he advanced both human anatomy and its representation in art.
Because the structure of living organisms is complex, anatomy is organized by levels, from the smallest components of cells to the largest organs and their relationship to others.
The history of anatomy has been characterized, over a long period of time, by an ongoing, developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the human body. Methods have advanced dramatically, from the simple examination by dissection of animals and cadavers (corpses), to the development and use of the microscope, to the far more technological advances of the electron microscope and other complex techniques developed since the beginning of the 20th century. During the 19th and early 20th centuries it was the most prominent biological field of scientific study. [15]
The study of human physiology dates back to at least 420 B.C. and the time of Hippocrates, the father of western medicine.[16] The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece, while Claudius Galenus (c. 126199 A.D.), known as Galen, was the first to use experiments to probe the function of the body. Galen was the founder of experimental physiology.[17] The medical world moved on from Galenism only with the appearance of Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey.[18]
Following from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance brought an increase of physiological research in the Western world that triggered the modern study of anatomy and physiology. Andreas Vesalius was an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica.[19] Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy.[20]Anatomist William Harvey described the circulatory system in the 17th century,[21] demonstrating the fruitful combination of close observations and careful experiments to learn about the functions of the body, which was fundamental to the development of experimental physiology. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a father of physiology due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook Institutiones medicae (1708).[citation needed]
In the 18th century, important works in this field were done by Pierre Cabanis, a French doctor and physiologist.[citation needed]
In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (18131878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter Cannon (18711945).[clarification needed]
In the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[22] Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.[23]
The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.
In terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to the interactions in the body.
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